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• (Journal Article) Green microfinance strategy for entrepreneurial transformation: validating a pattern towards sustainability

  01.12.2015
  This paper illustrates a shifted microfinance modality that adopted greening principles towards sustainability. The empirical context of the research was a green microfinance programme implemented by an NGO microfinance institution at two study sites in Bangladesh. The research conceived and tested a microfinance model underpinned by ‘ecological modernization’ and ‘innovation and entrepreneurship’ theories. Field studies were carried out between January 2012 and June 2013 in order to match the ‘theoretical realm’ with the ‘observational realm’. A case study and participatory methods were the primary means of studying the modality and operations of the green microfinance strategy. The study compared the ecological outcomes of green microfinance-assisted enterprises and traditional microcredit-assisted enterprises and measured their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Cool Farm Tool software was used to quantify GHGs. Comparison with a designed experiment shows that micro-enterprises employing green strategies emit less GHGs than the ones with traditional strategies. The research revealed that the microfinance-based greening interventions help to ensure ecological outcomes for micro-enterprises; thus, the combination of the embedded economic and social elements of the classic microfinance model with the new ecological elements supports sustainability.

• (Journal Article) Fostering economic opportunities for youth in Africa: a comprehensive approach

  01.06.2015
  Youth unemployment and working poverty are large and growing development challenges. The barriers faced by young women and men in accessing sustainable livelihoods are many, so supporting their successful transition into employment and entrepreneurship requires a comprehensive and holistic approach. This article reflects on the evolving approach of The MasterCard Foundation-supported programmes in sub-Saharan Africa, within the broader context of wider research and evidence. It suggests that combining training in a range of market-relevant skills, with access to job and business opportunities and appropriate financial services, can foster economic opportunities for youth. It emphasizes the importance of recognizing the role of mixed livelihoods in contexts where formal jobs are lacking, and of supporting youth engagement in agriculture and agribusiness as viable livelihood opportunities. And it highlights that the challenge can only be adequately addressed via the meaningful engagement of a range of stakeholders, including the private sector, government and civil society, and, especially, youth themselves.

• (Journal Article) Developing games as a qualitative method for researching menstrual hygiene management in rural Bolivia

  01.01.2015
  The onset of menstruation has proven challenging for girls in school, with absenteeism, missed class time, reduced participation, teasing, fear, shame, and risky adaptive behaviours among the most commonly noted impacts in many settings. In 2012, Emory University and UNICEF conducted a multi-country formative study to gain a global perspective of girls' experiences. A compendium of tools was created to ensure investigation of common themes across all settings. This paper describes the process of adapting the focus group discussion (FGD) tool for Bolivia into a board game as a method to ease girls' discomfort discussing menstruation and elicit richer data. We describe the development of the menstrual hygiene management game, including structure and strategies for adapting FGD questions that increased interaction, stimulated detailed responses, and diversified participatory activities. A discussion of lessons learned will highlight elements of success and areas for improvement in future game adaptations. The paper discusses games as a research method for other topics and their applications for programme design, monitoring, and skills-based learning.

• (Journal Article) Beyond ‘functionality’ of handpump-supplied rural water services in developing countries

  01.01.2016
  Many rural point-water sources in developing countries consist of wells or boreholes equipped with handpumps. Various estimates have been made of the functionality of such water points, and functionality is now routinely monitored in national and local surveys of service performance. We argue, however, that a single binary (functional/non-functional) indicator is crude and insufficient to provide much information about service sustainability. We set out a categorization of functionality which includes three sub-categories of functional water points and five non-functional sub-categories, with well/handpump water points in mind. We use a simple model to demonstrate that reduction of high rates of early post-construction abandonment and reduction of total downtimes would greatly improve service performance. We show that functionality levels for multi-age populations of wells or boreholes equipped with handpumps would not normally be expected to exceed about 85 per cent. We recommend going beyond functionality monitoring via the collection of quantitative data on rates of abandonment, frequency and duration of breakdown, combined with descriptive narratives of actions to manage and repair water points, in order to generate more nuanced understanding of service performance.

• (Journal Article) Value chain development in Nicaragua: prevailing approaches and tools used for design and implementation

  01.03.2017
  This article draws on four contrasting cases of value chain development (VCD) in Nicaragua to assess approaches and tools used in design and implementation. We interviewed 28 representatives from the international NGOs leading the interventions, the local NGOs that participated in implementation, principal buyers, and cooperatives. Despite the complexity of market systems, results showed a relatively basic approach to VCD, reflected in: 1) reliance on a single tool for design and implementation; 2) expected outcomes based on technical assistance and training for smallholders and cooperatives; 3) local NGOs and cooperatives with key roles in implementation; and 4) limited engagement with other chain actors, service providers, and researchers. We conclude with a call for a broader approach to VCD, based on a combination of tools to account for multiple, context-specific needs of diverse stakeholders, deeper collaboration between key actors within and outside the value chain, and evidence-based reflection and learning.

• (Journal Article) Building resilience to crisis through digital financial services with a gender lens

  01.03.2022
  The vulnerability of populations with limited resources and either in or at risk of poverty to a myriad of crises continues to increase. The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has further highlighted the inadequate resilience to crisis that such populations hold, and the rising prevalence of climatic variation is an existential risk factor that will continue to rise. In Mozambique, most livelihoods depend on natural resources and there is a high threat of extreme climate-related events. By drawing lessons from the Financial Services Deepening Mozambique (FSDMoç) programme, we highlight ways in which greater resilience has been built among fragile populations through innovative uses of digital financial services (DFS), and how resilience has been built with an explicit gender lens in order to mitigate existing inequalities. Lessons are drawn in relation to challenges faced and their application to wider programming.

• (Journal Article) Unravelling context: a formative photovoice study of Indian youth perspectives of sanitation and hygiene practices

  01.01.2021
  Water, sanitation, and hygiene are issues of substantial public health importance. Community-based participatory research approaches such as photovoice can help explore and identify determinants that influence sanitation and hygiene-related behaviours. This study aimed to use photovoice as part of the formative research process to increase understanding of youth’s perceptions of the cultural and contextual factors that influence sanitation and hygiene-related behaviours in Thirumalaikodi, India. First, a school was recruited using convenience sampling; next, 10 participants were purposively selected to participate in an information meeting, seven photo discussion sessions, and one wrap-up session over a three-week period. In each photo discussion session, participant groups selected one ‘trigger’ photograph, and through a structured discussion using SHOWED mnemonic questions (a series of questions that ask participants to describe and reflect upon a chosen photograph), generated a new understanding of issues related to water, sanitation, and hygiene. All sessions were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Conventional content analysis was used to analyse photo discussion session text. Findings revealed that factors such as social structure, education, and culture influence behaviours that determine the sanitary conditions of an individual’s private and public spaces. Furthermore, participants described how descriptive norms generated practices (e.g. littering) that were reinforced and maintained by limited access to waste management systems, attitudinal indifference, and generational beliefs. Findings yielded an in-depth understanding of youth’s perceptions of the cultural and contextual factors that influence sanitation and hygiene-related behaviours. This study also contributes to the advancement of participatory applications in formative research and intervention adaptation processes.

• (Journal Article) Menstrual hygiene: a ‘silent’ need during disaster recovery

  01.07.2016
  Post-disaster relief and recovery operations seldom focus on women’s priorities regarding menstrual hygiene. There is an increasing awareness to incorporate inclusive, participatory, and gender-sensitive strategies for implementation of response programmes. This article presents empirical findings related to menstrual hygiene management (MHM), demonstrating it is integral to women’s privacy and safety during recovery. Using case studies from India, the 2012 Assam floods and 2013 Cyclone Phailin in Odisha, this article explores menstrual hygiene practices in a post-disaster context. The data were collected through participatory learning and action tools such as focus group discussions, household interviews, priority ranking, and observations. It emerged that menstrual hygiene was overlooked at the household level during recovery; women and adolescent girls faced seclusion and isolation, exacerbating privacy and security concerns post-disasters. Some humanitarian agencies have an ad hoc approach towards MHM, which is limited to distribution of sanitary pads and does not address the socio-cultural practices around MHM. There is a need for strategic planning to address MHM with a gender-sensitive and inclusive approach. This article draws practical and policy inferences from the research for stronger approaches towards initiating behaviour change in MHM, and addressing attitudes and knowledge regarding menstrual hygiene.

• (Journal Article) Role of inclusive market systems development in promoting resilience: evidence from World Vision projects

  01.03.2022
  Evidence on whether market systems development (MSD) programmes for extremely poor smallholder farmers in low-income countries are associated with resilient outcomes when shocks/stressors appear is limited. We discuss the role of the inclusive MSD (iMSD) approach to generate resilience among vulnerable populations and report empirical evidence from World Vision’s project areas (with iMSD activities) and comparison communities in Tanzania and Rwanda. The panel data collected between 2017 and 2021 provide evidence on differences in household-level resilience in the face of COVID-19 shock. Descriptive estimates from the 2021 survey show project households had statistically greater food security, market participation, and perception of being fully/partially recovered than comparison households in both Tanzania and Rwanda. Integration in market systems helped buffer participants. Though food insecurity declined between survey rounds in Tanzania, it worsened in Rwanda, but more so among comparison households. Respondents in Rwanda experienced stricter COVID-19 ‘lockdowns’ and more limited iMSD activities than Tanzanians.

• (Journal Article) Hygiene kit distribution and use in humanitarian response: summary of information from a systematic review and key informant interviews

  01.10.2021
  Hygiene kits are commonly distributed in humanitarian emergencies to provide dignity and safety, yet remain under-researched. We aimed to close evidence gaps by completing a systematic review and key informant interviews (KII) to assess current practice in hygiene kits distributions. Fourteen KIIs were conducted and >5,000 documents were screened, with nine meeting inclusion criteria. Existing evidence highlights that reported use of hygiene kit items is high, and standardization, beneficiary involvement in kit design, and post-distribution monitoring are needed. Emergent themes from KIIs were: hygiene kit design; logistics/procurement; field appropriateness/feedback; and recommendations. Unexpectedly, menstrual health management (MHM) and market-based programming (MBP) dominated the literature. Overall, hygiene kit distributions are governed by ‘best practice’ rather than ‘evidence base’. This limited evidence base is stark compared to more robust evidence for market-based programming. As a common definition of hygiene kits was lacking, we developed and present a hygiene kit typology. We recommend hygiene kit programming: 1) understands local context, cultural norms, and preferences by incorporating beneficiary consultation and feedback; 2) ensures item type and quantity is what beneficiaries need; 3) ensures hygiene kits are context-appropriate, and considers concurrent MHM and/or MBP programming; and 4) works with coordination mechanisms to harmonize kit materials, delivery, and monitoring.

• (Journal Article) Agricultural finance that reaches people facing poverty, gender, and age barriers

  01.03.2022
  A high-tech, high-touch, high-impact (H3) approach to agricultural finance enables expansion of financial service markets to people facing poverty, gender, and age barriers to economic empowerment. This article explains the H3 approach and presents the case of Opportunity International’s Agricultural Finance Programme (AgFinance) in Africa. At the centre of the model are community-based farm advisors, providing high-touch/high-tech training in financial management, good agricultural practices, inclusion, and resilience. They also link farmers to financial service providers, input and equipment suppliers, and markets. In Malawi, where Opportunity has applied this model, outreach was high: 72 per cent of clients were living in extreme poverty, 57 per cent were women and 40 per cent youth. In 2021, the AgFinance programme facilitated loans to 68,262 borrowers with an outstanding balance of US$24.82 m. This outreach and scale demonstrates a market systems model – the H3 approach – with deep outreach at scale.

• (Journal Article) Better together: improving food security and nutrition by linking market and food systems

  01.09.2019
  Market-based approaches to food security often increase agricultural productivity and income yet sometimes fail to enhance nutrition. When food security programming combines market and food systems with a specific focus on women and girls, economic and nutrition outcomes benefit. We identify distinctive and shared elements from market and food systems and highlight how they enhance nutrition outcomes when they are combined. We describe food security programming by CARE and World Vision in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, demonstrating nutrition gains in food insecure households.

• (Journal Article) Crossfire: Can effective programming approaches to lift people over the poverty line focus on market systems alone?

  01.03.2022
  

• (Journal Article) Making pathogen hazards visible: a new heuristic to improve sanitation investment efficacy

  01.04.2016
  The public health objective of sanitation is to reduce the risk of negative health outcomes from faecal contamination. For water-based sanitation systems at the household and community scale as practised in Indonesia and perhaps elsewhere, the liquid component of the effluent comprises a significant pathogen hazard. While increasing attention is paid to managing the solid fraction, the hazard in the liquid fraction goes largely unnoticed and unmanaged. This paper proposes the means for a conceptual shift to a focus on the pathogen hazards that matter post-treatment, and where those hazards enter the environment, enabling improved local risk management. Firstly, the paper proposes exponential, rather than arithmetic, representations of pathogen number or concentration, because arithmetic representations of treatment efficacy wrongly suggest low cause for concern. Secondly, the paper introduces and applies the Pathogen Hazard Diagram, a new heuristic applicable at both the local and national scale, that requires only local knowledge and general sanitation reference knowledge to construct, but which can guide policy and action, direct monitoring, and improve the efficacy of sanitation investments.

• (Journal Article) Towards a sustainable solution for school menstrual hygiene management: cases of Ethiopia, Uganda, South-Sudan, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe

  01.01.2015
  African schoolgirls face considerable challenges as a result of the real biological phenomenon of menstruation and its management. Menstruation is seen as a secret and is regarded as taboo. As a result girls are not receiving adequate support from home, schools, or the community. They are left on their own to address the challenge which consequently affects their school performance. Development interventions that deal only with the supply of materials cannot resolve the problem in a sustainable manner. We need to have a comprehensive approach that can improve: knowledge, attitude, and practice of girls, parents, and the community; sanitary materials supply; the policy environment; and the physical infrastructure. The issue of menstrual hygiene management is gaining recognition as part of the development agenda for improving girls' school participation. But there is little research and few practical case studies have been conducted to inform policy and practice. SNV Netherlands Development Organization is addressing menstrual hygiene under its WASH in School programme in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. This article highlights baseline survey findings of the current menstrual hygiene management practices in the project areas of Ethiopia, South Sudan, Uganda, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe and recommends the approach piloted.

• (Journal Article) Schoolgirls’ experiences of changing and disposal of menstrual hygiene items and inferences for WASH in schools

  01.10.2015
  Menstrual hygiene management (MHM) challenges during changing and disposal of menstrual items are important in low-income countries (LICs) where schools lack sufficient water and sanitation. Changing in poorly maintained latrines may expose girls to excrement and infection. We examine the frequency of dropping menstrual items and disposal of waste by schoolgirls in a menstrual solutions feasibility study in western Kenya. Drops when changing were reported in 17 per cent (20 per cent <16 years; 16.5 per cent 16 years plus; p=0.04) of girls’ reports overall. Differences by socio-economic status were not evident. Fifty-four per cent of girls dropped at least once. A quarter of girls using pads and cups reported drops in the first few months, reducing to 10 per cent over time, compared with ~30 per cent among traditional item users. One in four accidental drops occurred at school during the study. When dropped at school, most girls swapped the dropped item for a new one, but 24 per cent brushed/washed the item and reused it. While no clinical events occurred during this study, data suggest dropping within latrines could place girls at potential risk of exposure to infection. Disposal of items, or emptying cups, was mostly into the latrine. We conclude that accidental dropping of menstrual items while changing is common, including at school. Prevention will be helped by improving poorly constructed sanitation facilities, shelving, privacy, and staggering/increasing break time for girls to change. Provision of special garbage bins to prevent clogging and overflow of latrines is recommended.

• (Journal Article) Impact assessment of commodity standards: towards inclusive value chains

  01.03.2017
  Voluntary commodity standards are widely used to enhance the performance of tropical agro-food chains and to support the welfare and sustainability of smallholder farmers. Different methods and approaches are used to assess the effectiveness and impact of these certification schemes at farm-household, village, cooperative, and regional level. We provide an overview of the results from robust impact studies on coffee, tea, banana, cocoa, and cotton certification programmes. Overall outcomes show rather modest net revenue effects for farmers, small direct income effect for wage workers, and contested sustainability effects. Most impact studies focus on primary sourcing, but devote less attention to changes in trust and governance throughout the value chain. Moreover, implications for gender issues and supply chain trust are not always fully addressed. In order to better understand these somewhat disappointing effects, we discuss different fallacies and drawbacks that affect impact studies concerning commodity certification programmes. Main attention is given to perverse incentives for intensification and specialization that arise from certification. Moreover, spillovers to other (non-certified) farmers and spatial externalities at landscape level may reduce net effects. Important secondary effects related to behavioural change (risk, trust) and local innovation dynamics are usually overlooked. Current practices in value chain development programmes should focus increasingly on dynamic effects of upgrading and improved market integration. New interactive impact assessment approaches (gaming, multi-agency simulation) that address integrated value chain relationships offer promising perspectives for real-time and systematic analysis of alternatives for smallholder value chain inclusion beyond certification.

• (Journal Article) Addressing women’s needs in water access for economic use: the case of Wukro town, Ethiopia

  01.07.2020
  In urban areas where water is not adequately supplied, women’s efforts to make a living out of water-intensive businesses face many challenges. The study examined how small-scale businesses run by women in Wukro town, Ethiopia are impacted by inadequate supply of water, and what coping strategies are employed. The lived experiences of women involved in small-scale water-intensive businesses, such as traditional beer brewing and coffee shops, were examined. In addition to these women, the perspectives and experiences of selected key informants as well as the officers at the local water utility have been assessed. Whether or not these women secure support from the social networks in their neighbourhood has also been considered. The study revealed that the unreliable supply of water in the town has impacted women involved in small business. It was indicated that some women manage to do well either by borrowing water from neighbours or purchasing from providers. In contrast, others who run businesses in rented houses with limited social networks expressed that they are struggling. Suggestions are made for the water utility to revise its working guidelines related to the provision of water services and to implement a gendered perspective in water management practices.

• (Journal Article) WASH challenges to girls’ menstrual hygiene management in Metro Manila, Masbate, and South Central Mindanao, Philippines

  01.07.2016
  This paper examines water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) conditions that enable and hinder Philippine schoolgirls to hygienically manage their menstruation. We collected qualitative data from 13 schools in three regions of the Philippines. Schools in both urban (Metro Manila) and rural areas (Masbate and South Central Mindanao) were included to allow for comparison across settings. Unreliable access to water, lack of disposal mechanisms for menstrual materials, unclean facilities, and insufficient number of latrines were identified as the key barriers to effective menstrual management in Masbate and Metro Manila. In South Central Mindanao, there was greater oversight of WASH hardware at schools and hardware was in better condition, which created a more enabling environment for girls to manage menstruation. Creating an enabling WASH environment for girls to manage menstruation requires sustained support and system oversight, combined with knowledge and information.

• (Journal Article) Strengthening market systems that provide water and hygiene items for cholera mitigation and emergency preparedness in Haiti

  01.10.2018
  In the context of the cholera epidemics in Haiti, a pre-crisis market analysis (PCMA) was conducted in Artibonite to study the supply of and demand for various water- and hygiene-related items. The objective was to inform current and future assistance modalities, whilst avoiding a negative impact on local markets and supporting local businesses. The market analysis found that the majority of households already purchase soap from local traders, but very few have handwashing facilities in their home. A good uptake of chlorine-based disinfection products was observed, including specific products to treat water for drinking. In addition, an extensive local supply of calcium hypochlorite (HTH), traditionally used by water services operators, was found to be available to individuals on Haitian markets. The market for water containers was also found to be strong, with the recycling of buckets and jerry cans used to import vegetable oil and other products. However, buckets with a tap, which are recommended for safer water handling and distributed during emergencies, were not available in the market. The findings from the PCMA are being used to strengthen market systems and supply chains to enable households to access water and hygiene commodities in Artibonite rather than to provide in-kind commodities directly as part of humanitarian responses. A marketing scheme was successfully piloted to encourage the purchase of water treatment products while promoting the installation of taps on households’ buckets. But another initiative to link water committees, national authorities and the wholesaler of HTH stalled due to disagreements about the role of authorities in supplying the product.