The aim of this review is to assess the literature (published and grey) on capital and recurrent costs of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) in Schools (WinS) facilities and services. The review presents life-cycle costs (e.g. consumables, repair, support, and maintenance) of WinS services and assesses the practical costing exercises and tools currently available for WinS. Furthermore, this review characterizes the typical costs and financial sources for WASH services in (primary) schools and explores the different financial mechanisms available to meet school-level WASH financing gaps.

Alexander, K.T., Dreibelbis, R., Freeman, M., Ojeny, B. and Rheingans, R. (2013) ‘Improving service delivery of water, sanitation and hygiene in primary schools: a cluster randomized trial in western Kenya’, Journal of Water and Health 11(3): 507–19 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2013.213>.

Alexander, K.T., Mwaki, A., Adhiambo, D., Cheney-Coker, M., Muga, R. and Freeman, M. (2016) ‘The life cycle costs of school WASH access in Kenyan primary schools’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 13: 637 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13070637>.

Burr, P. (2014) The Financial Costs of Delivering Rural Water and Sanitation Services in Lower-Income Countries [online], PhD thesis, Cranfield University, Cranfield, UK <https://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1826/9312/Burr_Peter_William_Thesis_2014.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y> [accessed 29 April 2020].

Burr, P., Fonseca, C., Moriarty, P. and McIntyre, P. (2012) Executive Summary: The Recurrent Expenditure Gap: Failing to Meet and Sustain Basic Water Services, WASHCost Working Paper No. 8, IRC WASHCost, The Hague.

Chatterley, C. and Thomas, A. (2013) Snapshot of WASH in Schools in Eastern and Southern Africa: A Review of Data, Evidence and Inequities in the Region [pdf], UNICEF Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Office, Nairobi, Kenya <https://www.unicef.org/wash/schools/files/Snapshot_of_WASH_in_Schools_in_Eastern_and_Southern_Africa(1).pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

Dwumfour-Asare, B., Nyarko, K.B. and Quaye, S.A. (2014) ‘The cost of urban water service delivery in Ghana: the case of the Kumasi and Accra-Tema water systems’, Ghanaian Journal of Economics 2: 119–34.

Fit for School (2017) Operation and Maintenance for WinS: Introducing a Costing Tool [webinar pdf] <http://www.fitforschool.international/wp-content/ezdocs/OM_Webinar_final.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

Fonseca, C., Dubé, A. and Verhoeven, J. (2011) Cost-based Decision Support Tools for Water and Sanitation [pdf], IRC, The Hague <https://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/Fonseca-2011-Cost-based.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

Football for Water (2018) ‘Developing sustainable business models for long-lasting WASH facilities in schools’ [online], News, 6 December <https://footballforwater.org/news/developing-sustainable-business-models-for-long-lasting-wash-facilities-in-schools/> [accessed 29 April 2020].

Franceys, R., Naafs, A., Pezon, C. and Fonseca, C. (2011) The Cost of Capital: Costs of Financing Capital Expenditure for Water and Sanitation [online], Briefing Note 1c, IRC, The Hague <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325020530_The_cost_of_capital_Costs_of_financing_capital_expenditure_for_water_and_sanitation> [accessed 1 May 2020].

Freeman, M., Snyder, J. and Brands, J. (2019) ‘Recommendations and requirements report for the development, piloting, and implementation of a school WASH budgeting tool’ [unpublished].

Gallo, K., Mwaki A., Caruso, B., Ochari, I.A., Freeman, M., Saboori, S., Dreibelbis, R. and Rheingans, R. (2012) An Evaluation of the Financial Management of WASH Programs in SWASH+ Primary Schools [pdf] <https://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/Gallo-2012-Evaluation.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

House, S., Mahon, T. and Cavill, S. (2012) Menstrual Hygiene Matters: A Resource for Improving Menstrual Hygiene around the World [online], WaterAid <http://www.wateraid.org/what-we-do/ourapproach/research-and-publications/view-publication?id=02309d73-8e41-4d04-b2ef-6641f6616a4f> [accessed 1 May 2020].

IMC Worldwide (2018) Feedback on UNICEF WASH in Schools Cost Model: Summary Review Report, IMC Worldwide, Redhill [unpublished].

IRC WASH (2007) Towards Effective Programming for WASH in Schools: A Manual on Scaling Up Programmes for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Schools [online], TP series no. 48, IRC, The Hague <https://www.ircwash.org/resources/towards-effective-programming-wash-schools-manual-scaling-programmes-water-sanitation-and> [accessed 29 April 2020].

IRC WASH (2017) ‘Costing and budgeting tools’ [online] <https://www.ircwash.org/tools/irc-costing-and-budgeting-tools> [accessed 29 April 2020].

IRC WASH and Water.org (2017) Financing WASH: How to Increase Funds for the Sector while Reducing Inequities [pdf], IRC, The Hague <https://water.org/documents/48/Water.org_Financing_SDG_Position_Paper_April_2017.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

Jones, S. (2015) ‘Adapting the life cycle cost approach for rural water supply in DRC through the DRC WASH consortium’, in R.J. Shaw (ed.), Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services Beyond 2015: Improving Access and Sustainability: Proceedings of the 38th WEDC International Conference [online], Loughborough, UK <https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/Adapting_the_life-cycle_costs_approach_for_rural_water_supply_in_DRC_through_the_DRC_WASH_Consortium/9586640> [accessed 29 April 2020].

Jordanova, T., Cronk, R., Obando, W., Medina, O.Z. and Bartram, J. (2015) ‘Water, sanitation, and hygiene in schools in low socio-economic regions in Nicaragua: a cross-sectional survey’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12(6): 6197–217 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120606197>.

Kayser, G.L., Rao, N., Jose, R. and Raj, A. (2019) ‘Water, sanitation and hygiene: measuring gender equality and empowerment’, Bulletin of the World Health Organization 97(6): 438–40 <https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.18.223305>.

Linda, L. and van Soelen, S. (2018) ‘Cross-country learning about innovative WASH cost and financing strategies for sustainability of WASH in schools’, 41st WEDC International Conference [pdf], Paper 2887, Egerton University, Nakuru, Kenya <https://wedc-knowledge.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/41/Linda-2887.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

McGinnis, M.S., McKeon, T., Desai, R., Ejelonu, A., Laskowski, S. and Murphy, H.M. (2017) ‘A systematic review: costing and financing of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) in schools’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14: 442 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14040442>.

Ministry of Education (MoE), Ministry of Health (MoH), and Ministry of Water and Sanitation (MoWS) (2018) Standards and Guidelines for WASH Infrastructure in Pre-Primary and Primary Schools in Kenya, UNICEF, Nairobi.

Reddy, V.R. and Batchelor, C. (2012) ‘Cost of providing sustainable water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services: an initial assessment of a life-cycle cost approach (LCCA) in rural Andhra Pradesh, India’, Water Policy 14(3): 409–29 <https://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2011.127>.

Saboori, S., Mwaki, A., Porter, S.E., Okech, B., Freeman, M.C. and Rheingans, R.D. (2011) ‘Sustaining school hand washing and water treatment programmes: lessons learned and to be learned’, Waterlines 30(4): 298–311 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2011.040>.

Save the Children (2016) Operation and Maintenance Financing for School WASH Facilities in Kenya [pdf] <https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/node/13323/pdf/4-kenya-case-study-final.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

Simavi and A4A (2016) WASH and Learn! An Eastern Africa Community and School WASH Learning and Exchange Programme [pdf] <https://www.rotary.nl/amersfoortregio/activiteiten/Archief%202015-2016/Short%20proposal%20Simavi%20A4A%20WvW%20%20Programma%202016%20-%202018.pdf> [accessed 1 May 2020].

Smits, S., Verhoeven, J., Moriarty, P., Fonseca, C. and Lockwood, H. (2011) Arrangements and Cost of Providing Support to Rural Water Service Providers [pdf], Working Paper No. 5, IRC WASHCost, The Hague <https://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/working_paper_5_-_arrangements_and_cost_of_providing_support_to_rural_water_service_providers_analyses.pdf> [accessed 1 May 2020].

Snehalatha, M., Fonseca, C., Rahman, M., Uddin, R., Ahmed, M. and Joy Sharif, A. (2015) School WASH Programmes in Bangladesh: How Much Does It Cost? Applying the Life Cycle Costs Approaches in Selected Upazilas [pdf], BRAC-IRC WASH <https://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/lcca_methodologyreport_school_wash_clean.pdf> [accessed 1 May 2020].

Sommer, M., Sutherland, C. and Chandra-Mouli, V. (2015) ‘Putting menarche and girls into the global population health agenda’, Reproductive Health Journal 12: 24 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12978-015-0009-8>.

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) (2013) Financing for Development Post-2015 [pdf], World Bank Group, Washington, DC <https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/2059fincaning.pdf> [accessed 1 May 2020].

United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) (2012) Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools, UNICEF, New York.

UNICEF and World Health Organization (WHO) (2018a) Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Schools: Global Baseline Report 2018 [online]<https://www.unicef.org/publications/index_102969.html> [accessed 29 April 2020].

UNICEF and WHO (2018b) Core Questions and Indicators for Monitoring WASH in Schools in the Sustainable Development Goals [pdf] <https://www.washdata.org/sites/default/files/documents/reports/2018-08/SDGs-monitoring-wash-in-schools-2018-August-web2.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

UNICEF Kenya (no date) Tool for Cost Recovery Planning of WASH in Schools: Football for WASH [Microsoft Excel dataset], UNICEF, Nairobi.

UN-Water GLAAS (2017) UN-Water GLAAS TrackFin Initiative: Tracking Financing to Sanitation, Hygiene and Drinking-Water at National Level [online], WHO, Geneva <https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/259899/9789241513562-eng.pdf?sequence=1> [accessed 29 April 2020].

UN-Water GLAAS (2019) National Systems to Support Drinking-Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Global Status Report 2019 [pdf], WHO, Geneva <https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/326444/9789241516297-eng.pdf?ua=1> [accessed 29 April 2020].

WASHCost Project (2012) Funding Recurrent Costs for Improved Rural Water Services, WASHCost Infosheet 3, December [pdf], IRC, The Hague <https://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/2012_3_is_recurrent_costs_rural_water_web.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

WaterAid (2018) ‘Rural sanitation costing framework’ [spreadsheet] <https://washmatters.wateraid.org/sites/g/files/jkxoof256/files/rural-sanitation-costing-framework---excel-spreadsheet.xlsx> [accessed 29 April 2020].

WEDC (2011) Inclusive Design of School Latrines: How Much Does It Cost and Who Benefits? Briefing Note 1 [pdf] <https://wedc-knowledge.lboro.ac.uk/resources/briefnotes/BN001_School_Latrines.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

World Economic Forum (WEF) (2005) Building on the Monterrey Consensus: The Growing Role of Public-Private Partnerships in Mobilizing Resources for Development [pdf] <https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/2119.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

Alexander, K.T., Dreibelbis, R., Freeman, M., Ojeny, B. and Rheingans, R. (2013) ‘Improving service delivery of water, sanitation and hygiene in primary schools: a cluster randomized trial in western Kenya’, Journal of Water and Health 11(3): 507–19 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2013.213>.

Alexander, K.T., Mwaki, A., Adhiambo, D., Cheney-Coker, M., Muga, R. and Freeman, M. (2016) ‘The life cycle costs of school WASH access in Kenyan primary schools’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 13: 637 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13070637>.

Burr, P. (2014) The Financial Costs of Delivering Rural Water and Sanitation Services in Lower-Income Countries [online], PhD thesis, Cranfield University, Cranfield, UK <https://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1826/9312/Burr_Peter_William_Thesis_2014.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y> [accessed 29 April 2020].

Burr, P., Fonseca, C., Moriarty, P. and McIntyre, P. (2012) Executive Summary: The Recurrent Expenditure Gap: Failing to Meet and Sustain Basic Water Services, WASHCost Working Paper No. 8, IRC WASHCost, The Hague.

Chatterley, C. and Thomas, A. (2013) Snapshot of WASH in Schools in Eastern and Southern Africa: A Review of Data, Evidence and Inequities in the Region [pdf], UNICEF Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Office, Nairobi, Kenya <https://www.unicef.org/wash/schools/files/Snapshot_of_WASH_in_Schools_in_Eastern_and_Southern_Africa(1).pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

Dwumfour-Asare, B., Nyarko, K.B. and Quaye, S.A. (2014) ‘The cost of urban water service delivery in Ghana: the case of the Kumasi and Accra-Tema water systems’, Ghanaian Journal of Economics 2: 119–34.

Fit for School (2017) Operation and Maintenance for WinS: Introducing a Costing Tool [webinar pdf] <http://www.fitforschool.international/wp-content/ezdocs/OM_Webinar_final.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

Fonseca, C., Dubé, A. and Verhoeven, J. (2011) Cost-based Decision Support Tools for Water and Sanitation [pdf], IRC, The Hague <https://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/Fonseca-2011-Cost-based.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

Football for Water (2018) ‘Developing sustainable business models for long-lasting WASH facilities in schools’ [online], News, 6 December <https://footballforwater.org/news/developing-sustainable-business-models-for-long-lasting-wash-facilities-in-schools/> [accessed 29 April 2020].

Franceys, R., Naafs, A., Pezon, C. and Fonseca, C. (2011) The Cost of Capital: Costs of Financing Capital Expenditure for Water and Sanitation [online], Briefing Note 1c, IRC, The Hague <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325020530_The_cost_of_capital_Costs_of_financing_capital_expenditure_for_water_and_sanitation> [accessed 1 May 2020].

Freeman, M., Snyder, J. and Brands, J. (2019) ‘Recommendations and requirements report for the development, piloting, and implementation of a school WASH budgeting tool’ [unpublished].

Gallo, K., Mwaki A., Caruso, B., Ochari, I.A., Freeman, M., Saboori, S., Dreibelbis, R. and Rheingans, R. (2012) An Evaluation of the Financial Management of WASH Programs in SWASH+ Primary Schools [pdf] <https://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/Gallo-2012-Evaluation.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

House, S., Mahon, T. and Cavill, S. (2012) Menstrual Hygiene Matters: A Resource for Improving Menstrual Hygiene around the World [online], WaterAid <http://www.wateraid.org/what-we-do/ourapproach/research-and-publications/view-publication?id=02309d73-8e41-4d04-b2ef-6641f6616a4f> [accessed 1 May 2020].

IMC Worldwide (2018) Feedback on UNICEF WASH in Schools Cost Model: Summary Review Report, IMC Worldwide, Redhill [unpublished].

IRC WASH (2007) Towards Effective Programming for WASH in Schools: A Manual on Scaling Up Programmes for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Schools [online], TP series no. 48, IRC, The Hague <https://www.ircwash.org/resources/towards-effective-programming-wash-schools-manual-scaling-programmes-water-sanitation-and> [accessed 29 April 2020].

IRC WASH (2017) ‘Costing and budgeting tools’ [online] <https://www.ircwash.org/tools/irc-costing-and-budgeting-tools> [accessed 29 April 2020].

IRC WASH and Water.org (2017) Financing WASH: How to Increase Funds for the Sector while Reducing Inequities [pdf], IRC, The Hague <https://water.org/documents/48/Water.org_Financing_SDG_Position_Paper_April_2017.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

Jones, S. (2015) ‘Adapting the life cycle cost approach for rural water supply in DRC through the DRC WASH consortium’, in R.J. Shaw (ed.), Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Services Beyond 2015: Improving Access and Sustainability: Proceedings of the 38th WEDC International Conference [online], Loughborough, UK <https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/Adapting_the_life-cycle_costs_approach_for_rural_water_supply_in_DRC_through_the_DRC_WASH_Consortium/9586640> [accessed 29 April 2020].

Jordanova, T., Cronk, R., Obando, W., Medina, O.Z. and Bartram, J. (2015) ‘Water, sanitation, and hygiene in schools in low socio-economic regions in Nicaragua: a cross-sectional survey’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12(6): 6197–217 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120606197>.

Kayser, G.L., Rao, N., Jose, R. and Raj, A. (2019) ‘Water, sanitation and hygiene: measuring gender equality and empowerment’, Bulletin of the World Health Organization 97(6): 438–40 <https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.18.223305>.

Linda, L. and van Soelen, S. (2018) ‘Cross-country learning about innovative WASH cost and financing strategies for sustainability of WASH in schools’, 41st WEDC International Conference [pdf], Paper 2887, Egerton University, Nakuru, Kenya <https://wedc-knowledge.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/41/Linda-2887.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

McGinnis, M.S., McKeon, T., Desai, R., Ejelonu, A., Laskowski, S. and Murphy, H.M. (2017) ‘A systematic review: costing and financing of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) in schools’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14: 442 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14040442>.

Ministry of Education (MoE), Ministry of Health (MoH), and Ministry of Water and Sanitation (MoWS) (2018) Standards and Guidelines for WASH Infrastructure in Pre-Primary and Primary Schools in Kenya, UNICEF, Nairobi.

Reddy, V.R. and Batchelor, C. (2012) ‘Cost of providing sustainable water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services: an initial assessment of a life-cycle cost approach (LCCA) in rural Andhra Pradesh, India’, Water Policy 14(3): 409–29 <https://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2011.127>.

Saboori, S., Mwaki, A., Porter, S.E., Okech, B., Freeman, M.C. and Rheingans, R.D. (2011) ‘Sustaining school hand washing and water treatment programmes: lessons learned and to be learned’, Waterlines 30(4): 298–311 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2011.040>.

Save the Children (2016) Operation and Maintenance Financing for School WASH Facilities in Kenya [pdf] <https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/node/13323/pdf/4-kenya-case-study-final.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

Simavi and A4A (2016) WASH and Learn! An Eastern Africa Community and School WASH Learning and Exchange Programme [pdf] <https://www.rotary.nl/amersfoortregio/activiteiten/Archief%202015-2016/Short%20proposal%20Simavi%20A4A%20WvW%20%20Programma%202016%20-%202018.pdf> [accessed 1 May 2020].

Smits, S., Verhoeven, J., Moriarty, P., Fonseca, C. and Lockwood, H. (2011) Arrangements and Cost of Providing Support to Rural Water Service Providers [pdf], Working Paper No. 5, IRC WASHCost, The Hague <https://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/working_paper_5_-_arrangements_and_cost_of_providing_support_to_rural_water_service_providers_analyses.pdf> [accessed 1 May 2020].

Snehalatha, M., Fonseca, C., Rahman, M., Uddin, R., Ahmed, M. and Joy Sharif, A. (2015) School WASH Programmes in Bangladesh: How Much Does It Cost? Applying the Life Cycle Costs Approaches in Selected Upazilas [pdf], BRAC-IRC WASH <https://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/lcca_methodologyreport_school_wash_clean.pdf> [accessed 1 May 2020].

Sommer, M., Sutherland, C. and Chandra-Mouli, V. (2015) ‘Putting menarche and girls into the global population health agenda’, Reproductive Health Journal 12: 24 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12978-015-0009-8>.

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) (2013) Financing for Development Post-2015 [pdf], World Bank Group, Washington, DC <https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/2059fincaning.pdf> [accessed 1 May 2020].

United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) (2012) Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools, UNICEF, New York.

UNICEF and World Health Organization (WHO) (2018a) Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Schools: Global Baseline Report 2018 [online]<https://www.unicef.org/publications/index_102969.html> [accessed 29 April 2020].

UNICEF and WHO (2018b) Core Questions and Indicators for Monitoring WASH in Schools in the Sustainable Development Goals [pdf] <https://www.washdata.org/sites/default/files/documents/reports/2018-08/SDGs-monitoring-wash-in-schools-2018-August-web2.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

UNICEF Kenya (no date) Tool for Cost Recovery Planning of WASH in Schools: Football for WASH [Microsoft Excel dataset], UNICEF, Nairobi.

UN-Water GLAAS (2017) UN-Water GLAAS TrackFin Initiative: Tracking Financing to Sanitation, Hygiene and Drinking-Water at National Level [online], WHO, Geneva <https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/259899/9789241513562-eng.pdf?sequence=1> [accessed 29 April 2020].

UN-Water GLAAS (2019) National Systems to Support Drinking-Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Global Status Report 2019 [pdf], WHO, Geneva <https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/326444/9789241516297-eng.pdf?ua=1> [accessed 29 April 2020].

WASHCost Project (2012) Funding Recurrent Costs for Improved Rural Water Services, WASHCost Infosheet 3, December [pdf], IRC, The Hague <https://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/2012_3_is_recurrent_costs_rural_water_web.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

WaterAid (2018) ‘Rural sanitation costing framework’ [spreadsheet] <https://washmatters.wateraid.org/sites/g/files/jkxoof256/files/rural-sanitation-costing-framework---excel-spreadsheet.xlsx> [accessed 29 April 2020].

WEDC (2011) Inclusive Design of School Latrines: How Much Does It Cost and Who Benefits? Briefing Note 1 [pdf] <https://wedc-knowledge.lboro.ac.uk/resources/briefnotes/BN001_School_Latrines.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].

World Economic Forum (WEF) (2005) Building on the Monterrey Consensus: The Growing Role of Public-Private Partnerships in Mobilizing Resources for Development [pdf] <https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/2119.pdf> [accessed 29 April 2020].