Faecal sludge management (FSM) is a rising priority in the WASH sector, and governments and development agencies are increasing their investments in faecal sludge treatment plants (FSTPs). In Bangladesh there are plans to build 100 FSTPs in secondary municipalities. However, lessons from past experiences are not widely understood or considered. This article aims to fill that gap, shedding light on the drivers of success and challenges in the provision of municipal FSM services, analysing the cases of older FSTPs in four secondary towns in Bangladesh. Only one of these plants was fully operational, one was not operating, and two were partially operational. A challenge identified was that the faecal sludge treatment plants were not part of an integral and well-thought-out plan considering the whole sanitation service chain. Unbalanced partnerships between stakeholders was a crucial barrier to the long-term success of FSTPs, as it hindered the empowerment of the municipal governments to take ownership of FSM service provision. The financing and technical capacities of the municipalities were another barrier, which was covered by NGOs in the most successful plant. The study suggests that future investment in FSM services in secondary towns in Bangladesh and similar contexts should 1) put municipalities in the driving seat, 2) ensure adequate financing, 3) consider the whole sanitation service chain, and 4) strengthen the capacities of the local actors to deliver FSM services.

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Bassan, M., Koné, D., Mbéguéré, M., Holliger, C., and Strande, L.. (2014) ‘Success and failure assessment methodology for wastewater and faecal sludge treatment projects in low-income countries’, Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 58(10): 1690–710 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2014.943343>.

Biswas, S. (2014) Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant (Reed Bed System): A Technology of Faecal Sludge Management in Sub-Urban Regions of Bangladesh, Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE), Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Eawag/Sandec (2019) Evaluation and Monitoring of Faecal Sludge Treatment Plants (eFSTP): Scoping Study and Way Forward.

International Development Association (2019) Project Appraisal Document - Bangladesh Municpal Water Supply and Sanitation Project. Available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/208161563156170021/pdf/Bangladesh-Municipal-Water-Supply-and-Sanitation-Project.pdf. [accessed 16 October 2019].

Jahan, H. (2019) ‘Learning from failure: the untold story’, 21 May 2019 [blog], Practical Action <https://practicalaction.org/blog/news/campaigns/learning-from-failure-the-untold-story/> [accessed 12 June 2019].

Kinger, M., Gueye, A., Manandhar Sharpa, A. and Strande, L. (2019) Scoping Study: Faecal Sludge Treatment Plants in South-Asia and sub-Saharan Africa [online], eFSTP Project Report <http://dx.doi.org/10.21955/GATESOPENRES.1116557.1> [accessed 30 April 2020].

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Page, E. and Goldsmith, M. (1987). Central and local government relations. A comparative analysis ofWest European states. London: Sage Publications

Panday, P. (2017) ‘Decentralisation without decentralisation: Bangladesh’s failed attempt to transfer power from the central government to local governments’, Asia Pacific Journal of Public Administration 39(2-3): 177–88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23276665.2017.1363940>.

Panday, P. K. and Assaduzzaman, M. (2011). Politics, problems and trends of decentralized local governance in Bangladesh. In I. Jamil, A. M. Aminuzzaman, S. Askvik, & S. T. M. Haque (Eds.), Understanding governance and public policy in Bangladesh (pp. 153–174). Dhaka: North South University Press.

Reymond, P., Wahaab, R.A. and Moussa, M. (2015) Policy Recommendations for the Scaling-Up of Small-Scale Sanitation in Egypt: The ESRISS Project Final Report [pdf], ESRISS: Egyptian-Swiss Research on Innovations in Sustainable Sanitation, State Secretariat for Economic Affairs (SECO), Cairo, Egypt <https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/Domain1/Abteilungen/sandec/schwerpunkte/sesp/ESRISS/pdfs/Policy_Report.pdf> [accessed 16 May 2019].

Scharp, C., Saleh, A., Jiménez, A., Delepiere, A. and LeDeunuff, H. (2018) Programming for Sustainability in Water Services: A Framework [pdf], Accountability for Sustainability <https://www.unicef.org/wash/files/Programming_for_Sustainability_in_Water_Services_A_Framework.pdf> [accessed 16 May 2019].

Schoebitz, L., Zurbrügg, C., Niwagaba, C., Nguyen, V. and Strande, L. (2015) Private Public Partnership Solutions for Faecal Sludge Management [pdf], Sandec News, Excreta and Wastewater Management <https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/Domain1/Abteilungen/sandec/publikationen/EWM/Sustainable_Implementation/private_public.pdf> [accessed 12 April 2019].

SNV (2018) ‘Urban sanitation in Bangladesh – Component 4: Treatment, disposal and reuse’, February 2018 [blog] <http://www.snv.org/update/urban-sanitation-bangladesh-component-4-treatment-disposal-and-reuse> [accessed 16 April 2019].

United Nations (2019) ‘Sustainable Development Goal 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all’ [online] <https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg6> [accessed 5 March 2019].

WaterAid (2019a) Faecal Sludge Management Landscape in South Asia: Case Studies [pdf], WaterAid, London <https://washmatters.wateraid.org/sites/g/files/jkxoof256/files/faecal-sludge-management-landscape-in-south-asia-case-studies.pdf> [accessed 16 October 2019].

WaterAid (2019b) Functionality of Wastewater Treatment Plants in Low-and Middle-Income Countries: Desk Review [pdf], WaterAid, London https://washmatters.wateraid.org/sites/g/files/jkxoof256/files/functionality-of-wastewater-treatment-plants-in-low--and-middle-income-countries-desk-review_1.pdf [accessed 16 October 2019].

Yin, R.K. (1994) Case Study Research: Design and Methods, 2nd edn, Thousand Oaks, CA Sage Publications.