Menstrual hygiene management: education and empowerment for girls?
Murat Sahin | Deepa Joshi | Gerlinde Buit | Diana González-Botero
This paper discusses the recent attention of the water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) sector to resolving the menstrual hygiene crisis for young girls in developing countries. Menstrual hygiene management (MHM) interventions, including the use of sanitary pads, education, and awareness, and where possible separate, sanitary toilets, are identified to have far-reaching impacts on the education and empowerment of girls. Field research conducted in Ghana's Northern Region indicates a pronounced socialized, sexualized understanding and experience of menstruation among young girls and their families, school teachers, and local NGOs. Unfortunately WASH initiatives only allow interventions to manage menstrual hygiene, leaving the young girls and others in their social settings to deal with the larger subset of sexuality issues. We argue that opening the dominant discourse of a medicalized concept of menstruation to other meanings and experiences will have significant implications for the education and empowerment of young adolescent girls.Aniebue, U.U., Aniebue, P.N. and Nwankwo, T.O. (2009) ‘The impact of pre-menarcheal training on menstrual practices and hygiene of Nigerian schoolgirls’, Pan African Medical Journal 2(9): 1-9 <http://www.panafrican-med-journal.com/content/article/2/9/full/≯ [last accessed 19 December 2014]. http://www.panafrican-med-journal.com/content/article/2/9/full/
De Beauvoir, S. (1997) The Second Sex, London: David Campbell Publishers.
Birdthistle, I., Dickson, K., Freeman, M. and Javidi, L. (2011) What Impact Does the Provision of Separate Toilets for Girls at Schools have on their Primary and Secondary School Enrolment, Attendance and Completion? A Systematic Review of the Evidence, London: EPPI-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, Institute of Education, University of London.
Bobel, C. (2010) New Blood: Third-Wave Feminism and the Politics of Menstruation, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Crofts, T. and Fisher, J. (2012) ‘Menstrual hygiene in Ugandan schools: an investigation of low-cost sanitary pads’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 2(1): 50-8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2012.067≯.
DePalma, R. and Francis, D.A. (2013) ‘The gendered nature of South African teachers’ discourse on sex education’, Health Education Research 29(4): 624-32 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/her/cyt117≯.
Diorio, J.A. and Munro, J.A. (2000) ‘Doing harm in the name of protection: menstruation as a topic for sex education’, Gender and Education 12(3): 347-65 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/713668302≯.
Douglas, M. (2005) ‘The two bodies’, in M. Fraser and M. Greco (eds.), The Body, a Reader, pp. 78-81, New York: Routledge.
Eyben, R. and Napier-Moore, R. (2009) ‘Choosing words with care? Shifting meanings of women‘s empowerment in international development’, Third World Quarterly 30(2): 285-300 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01436590802681066≯.
Foucault, M. (1974) The Archaeology of Knowledge, London: Tavistock Publications Ltd.
Foucault, M. (1990) The History of Sexuality Volume I: An Introduction, New York: Random House [1976].
Freud, S. (1965) Totem and Taboo: Some Points of Agreement between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.
Kirk, J. and Sommer, M. (2006) Menstruation and Body Awareness: Linking Girls’ Health with Girls’ Education, Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute (KIT).
Montgomery, P., Ryus, C.R., Dolan, C.S., Dopson, S. and Scott, L.M. (2012) ‘Sanitary pad interventions for girls’ education in Ghana: a pilot study’, Plos One <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0048274≯.
Northrup, C. (1994) Women's Bodies, Women's Wisdom, New York: Bantam Books.
One Girl (2014) ‘Why girls’ [website] <www.onegirl.org.au/why-girls≯ [accessed 11 December 2014]. www.onegirl.org.au/why-girls
Owen, L. (1998) Honoring Menstruation: A Time of Self-Renewal, Australia: Crossing Press.
Roberts, A-T., Goldenberg, L.J., Power, C. and Pyszczynski, T. (2002) ‘Feminine protection: the effects of menstruation on attitudes towards women’, Psychology of Women Quarterly 26(2): 131-9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.00051≯.
Roy, S. (2014) ‘Growing up with Rishta’. Civil Society 12: 2 <www.civilsocietyonline.com≯. www.civilsocietyonline.com
Scott, L., Dopson, S., Montgomery, P., Dolan, C. and Ryus, C. (2009) Impact of Providing Sanitary Pads To Poor Girls in Africa, Oxford: University of Oxford.
Snel, M. and Da Silva Wells, C. (2014) ‘Why focus on menstrual hygiene management?’ [online] IRC <www.ircwash.org/blog/why-focus-menstrual-hygiene-management≯ [accessed 11 December 2014]. www.ircwash.org/blog/why-focus-menstrual-hygiene-management
Sommer, M. (2009) ‘Ideologies of sexuality, menstruation and risk: girls’ experiences of puberty and schooling in northern Tanzania’, An International Journal for Research, Intervention and Care 11(4): 383-8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13691050902722372≯.
Uitto, M. and Estola, E. (2009) ‘Gender and emotions in relationships: a group of teachers recalling their own teachers’, Gender and Education 21(5): 517-30 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09540250802667591≯.
UNICEF (2006) Progress for Children: A Report Card on Water and Sanitation [pdf] <www.unicef.org/publications/files/Progress_for_Children_No._5_-_English.pdf≯ [accessed 11 December 2014]. www.unicef.org/publications/files/Progress_for_Children_No._5_-_English.pdf
Wallace, T. and Coles, A. (2005) ‘Water, Gender and Development: An Introduction’, in A. Coles and T. Wallace (eds.), Gender, Water and Development, pp. 1-20, New York: Berg.
Wilson, E., Reeve, J., Pitt, A., Sully, B. and Julious, S. (2012) INSPIRES: Investigating a Reusable Sanitary Pad Intervention in a Rural Educational Setting, Report Series no. 27, Sheffield: University of Sheffield, School of Health and Related Research (ScHARR).
Aniebue, U.U., Aniebue, P.N. and Nwankwo, T.O. (2009) ‘The impact of pre-menarcheal training on menstrual practices and hygiene of Nigerian schoolgirls’, Pan African Medical Journal 2(9): 1-9 <http://www.panafrican-med-journal.com/content/article/2/9/full/≯ [last accessed 19 December 2014]. http://www.panafrican-med-journal.com/content/article/2/9/full/
De Beauvoir, S. (1997) The Second Sex, London: David Campbell Publishers.
Birdthistle, I., Dickson, K., Freeman, M. and Javidi, L. (2011) What Impact Does the Provision of Separate Toilets for Girls at Schools have on their Primary and Secondary School Enrolment, Attendance and Completion? A Systematic Review of the Evidence, London: EPPI-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, Institute of Education, University of London.
Bobel, C. (2010) New Blood: Third-Wave Feminism and the Politics of Menstruation, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Crofts, T. and Fisher, J. (2012) ‘Menstrual hygiene in Ugandan schools: an investigation of low-cost sanitary pads’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 2(1): 50-8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2012.067≯.
DePalma, R. and Francis, D.A. (2013) ‘The gendered nature of South African teachers’ discourse on sex education’, Health Education Research 29(4): 624-32 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/her/cyt117≯.
Diorio, J.A. and Munro, J.A. (2000) ‘Doing harm in the name of protection: menstruation as a topic for sex education’, Gender and Education 12(3): 347-65 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/713668302≯.
Douglas, M. (2005) ‘The two bodies’, in M. Fraser and M. Greco (eds.), The Body, a Reader, pp. 78-81, New York: Routledge.
Eyben, R. and Napier-Moore, R. (2009) ‘Choosing words with care? Shifting meanings of women‘s empowerment in international development’, Third World Quarterly 30(2): 285-300 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01436590802681066≯.
Foucault, M. (1974) The Archaeology of Knowledge, London: Tavistock Publications Ltd.
Foucault, M. (1990) The History of Sexuality Volume I: An Introduction, New York: Random House [1976].
Freud, S. (1965) Totem and Taboo: Some Points of Agreement between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.
Kirk, J. and Sommer, M. (2006) Menstruation and Body Awareness: Linking Girls’ Health with Girls’ Education, Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute (KIT).
Montgomery, P., Ryus, C.R., Dolan, C.S., Dopson, S. and Scott, L.M. (2012) ‘Sanitary pad interventions for girls’ education in Ghana: a pilot study’, Plos One <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0048274≯.
Northrup, C. (1994) Women's Bodies, Women's Wisdom, New York: Bantam Books.
One Girl (2014) ‘Why girls’ [website] <www.onegirl.org.au/why-girls≯ [accessed 11 December 2014]. www.onegirl.org.au/why-girls
Owen, L. (1998) Honoring Menstruation: A Time of Self-Renewal, Australia: Crossing Press.
Roberts, A-T., Goldenberg, L.J., Power, C. and Pyszczynski, T. (2002) ‘Feminine protection: the effects of menstruation on attitudes towards women’, Psychology of Women Quarterly 26(2): 131-9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.00051≯.
Roy, S. (2014) ‘Growing up with Rishta’. Civil Society 12: 2 <www.civilsocietyonline.com≯. www.civilsocietyonline.com
Scott, L., Dopson, S., Montgomery, P., Dolan, C. and Ryus, C. (2009) Impact of Providing Sanitary Pads To Poor Girls in Africa, Oxford: University of Oxford.
Snel, M. and Da Silva Wells, C. (2014) ‘Why focus on menstrual hygiene management?’ [online] IRC <www.ircwash.org/blog/why-focus-menstrual-hygiene-management≯ [accessed 11 December 2014]. www.ircwash.org/blog/why-focus-menstrual-hygiene-management
Sommer, M. (2009) ‘Ideologies of sexuality, menstruation and risk: girls’ experiences of puberty and schooling in northern Tanzania’, An International Journal for Research, Intervention and Care 11(4): 383-8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13691050902722372≯.
Uitto, M. and Estola, E. (2009) ‘Gender and emotions in relationships: a group of teachers recalling their own teachers’, Gender and Education 21(5): 517-30 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09540250802667591≯.
UNICEF (2006) Progress for Children: A Report Card on Water and Sanitation [pdf] <www.unicef.org/publications/files/Progress_for_Children_No._5_-_English.pdf≯ [accessed 11 December 2014]. www.unicef.org/publications/files/Progress_for_Children_No._5_-_English.pdf
Wallace, T. and Coles, A. (2005) ‘Water, Gender and Development: An Introduction’, in A. Coles and T. Wallace (eds.), Gender, Water and Development, pp. 1-20, New York: Berg.
Wilson, E., Reeve, J., Pitt, A., Sully, B. and Julious, S. (2012) INSPIRES: Investigating a Reusable Sanitary Pad Intervention in a Rural Educational Setting, Report Series no. 27, Sheffield: University of Sheffield, School of Health and Related Research (ScHARR).
Aniebue, U.U., Aniebue, P.N. and Nwankwo, T.O. (2009) ‘The impact of pre-menarcheal training on menstrual practices and hygiene of Nigerian schoolgirls’, Pan African Medical Journal 2(9): 1-9 <http://www.panafrican-med-journal.com/content/article/2/9/full/≯ [last accessed 19 December 2014]. http://www.panafrican-med-journal.com/content/article/2/9/full/
De Beauvoir, S. (1997) The Second Sex, London: David Campbell Publishers.
Birdthistle, I., Dickson, K., Freeman, M. and Javidi, L. (2011) What Impact Does the Provision of Separate Toilets for Girls at Schools have on their Primary and Secondary School Enrolment, Attendance and Completion? A Systematic Review of the Evidence, London: EPPI-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, Institute of Education, University of London.
Bobel, C. (2010) New Blood: Third-Wave Feminism and the Politics of Menstruation, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Crofts, T. and Fisher, J. (2012) ‘Menstrual hygiene in Ugandan schools: an investigation of low-cost sanitary pads’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 2(1): 50-8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2012.067≯.
DePalma, R. and Francis, D.A. (2013) ‘The gendered nature of South African teachers’ discourse on sex education’, Health Education Research 29(4): 624-32 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/her/cyt117≯.
Diorio, J.A. and Munro, J.A. (2000) ‘Doing harm in the name of protection: menstruation as a topic for sex education’, Gender and Education 12(3): 347-65 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/713668302≯.
Douglas, M. (2005) ‘The two bodies’, in M. Fraser and M. Greco (eds.), The Body, a Reader, pp. 78-81, New York: Routledge.
Eyben, R. and Napier-Moore, R. (2009) ‘Choosing words with care? Shifting meanings of women‘s empowerment in international development’, Third World Quarterly 30(2): 285-300 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01436590802681066≯.
Foucault, M. (1974) The Archaeology of Knowledge, London: Tavistock Publications Ltd.
Foucault, M. (1990) The History of Sexuality Volume I: An Introduction, New York: Random House [1976].
Freud, S. (1965) Totem and Taboo: Some Points of Agreement between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.
Kirk, J. and Sommer, M. (2006) Menstruation and Body Awareness: Linking Girls’ Health with Girls’ Education, Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute (KIT).
Montgomery, P., Ryus, C.R., Dolan, C.S., Dopson, S. and Scott, L.M. (2012) ‘Sanitary pad interventions for girls’ education in Ghana: a pilot study’, Plos One <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0048274≯.
Northrup, C. (1994) Women's Bodies, Women's Wisdom, New York: Bantam Books.
One Girl (2014) ‘Why girls’ [website] <www.onegirl.org.au/why-girls≯ [accessed 11 December 2014]. www.onegirl.org.au/why-girls
Owen, L. (1998) Honoring Menstruation: A Time of Self-Renewal, Australia: Crossing Press.
Roberts, A-T., Goldenberg, L.J., Power, C. and Pyszczynski, T. (2002) ‘Feminine protection: the effects of menstruation on attitudes towards women’, Psychology of Women Quarterly 26(2): 131-9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.00051≯.
Roy, S. (2014) ‘Growing up with Rishta’. Civil Society 12: 2 <www.civilsocietyonline.com≯. www.civilsocietyonline.com
Scott, L., Dopson, S., Montgomery, P., Dolan, C. and Ryus, C. (2009) Impact of Providing Sanitary Pads To Poor Girls in Africa, Oxford: University of Oxford.
Snel, M. and Da Silva Wells, C. (2014) ‘Why focus on menstrual hygiene management?’ [online] IRC <www.ircwash.org/blog/why-focus-menstrual-hygiene-management≯ [accessed 11 December 2014]. www.ircwash.org/blog/why-focus-menstrual-hygiene-management
Sommer, M. (2009) ‘Ideologies of sexuality, menstruation and risk: girls’ experiences of puberty and schooling in northern Tanzania’, An International Journal for Research, Intervention and Care 11(4): 383-8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13691050902722372≯.
Uitto, M. and Estola, E. (2009) ‘Gender and emotions in relationships: a group of teachers recalling their own teachers’, Gender and Education 21(5): 517-30 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09540250802667591≯.
UNICEF (2006) Progress for Children: A Report Card on Water and Sanitation [pdf] <www.unicef.org/publications/files/Progress_for_Children_No._5_-_English.pdf≯ [accessed 11 December 2014]. www.unicef.org/publications/files/Progress_for_Children_No._5_-_English.pdf
Wallace, T. and Coles, A. (2005) ‘Water, Gender and Development: An Introduction’, in A. Coles and T. Wallace (eds.), Gender, Water and Development, pp. 1-20, New York: Berg.
Wilson, E., Reeve, J., Pitt, A., Sully, B. and Julious, S. (2012) INSPIRES: Investigating a Reusable Sanitary Pad Intervention in a Rural Educational Setting, Report Series no. 27, Sheffield: University of Sheffield, School of Health and Related Research (ScHARR).
Aniebue, U.U., Aniebue, P.N. and Nwankwo, T.O. (2009) ‘The impact of pre-menarcheal training on menstrual practices and hygiene of Nigerian schoolgirls’, Pan African Medical Journal 2(9): 1-9 <http://www.panafrican-med-journal.com/content/article/2/9/full/≯ [last accessed 19 December 2014]. http://www.panafrican-med-journal.com/content/article/2/9/full/
De Beauvoir, S. (1997) The Second Sex, London: David Campbell Publishers.
Birdthistle, I., Dickson, K., Freeman, M. and Javidi, L. (2011) What Impact Does the Provision of Separate Toilets for Girls at Schools have on their Primary and Secondary School Enrolment, Attendance and Completion? A Systematic Review of the Evidence, London: EPPI-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, Institute of Education, University of London.
Bobel, C. (2010) New Blood: Third-Wave Feminism and the Politics of Menstruation, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Crofts, T. and Fisher, J. (2012) ‘Menstrual hygiene in Ugandan schools: an investigation of low-cost sanitary pads’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 2(1): 50-8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2012.067≯.
DePalma, R. and Francis, D.A. (2013) ‘The gendered nature of South African teachers’ discourse on sex education’, Health Education Research 29(4): 624-32 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/her/cyt117≯.
Diorio, J.A. and Munro, J.A. (2000) ‘Doing harm in the name of protection: menstruation as a topic for sex education’, Gender and Education 12(3): 347-65 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/713668302≯.
Douglas, M. (2005) ‘The two bodies’, in M. Fraser and M. Greco (eds.), The Body, a Reader, pp. 78-81, New York: Routledge.
Eyben, R. and Napier-Moore, R. (2009) ‘Choosing words with care? Shifting meanings of women‘s empowerment in international development’, Third World Quarterly 30(2): 285-300 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01436590802681066≯.
Foucault, M. (1974) The Archaeology of Knowledge, London: Tavistock Publications Ltd.
Foucault, M. (1990) The History of Sexuality Volume I: An Introduction, New York: Random House [1976].
Freud, S. (1965) Totem and Taboo: Some Points of Agreement between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.
Kirk, J. and Sommer, M. (2006) Menstruation and Body Awareness: Linking Girls’ Health with Girls’ Education, Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute (KIT).
Montgomery, P., Ryus, C.R., Dolan, C.S., Dopson, S. and Scott, L.M. (2012) ‘Sanitary pad interventions for girls’ education in Ghana: a pilot study’, Plos One <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0048274≯.
Northrup, C. (1994) Women's Bodies, Women's Wisdom, New York: Bantam Books.
One Girl (2014) ‘Why girls’ [website] <www.onegirl.org.au/why-girls≯ [accessed 11 December 2014]. www.onegirl.org.au/why-girls
Owen, L. (1998) Honoring Menstruation: A Time of Self-Renewal, Australia: Crossing Press.
Roberts, A-T., Goldenberg, L.J., Power, C. and Pyszczynski, T. (2002) ‘Feminine protection: the effects of menstruation on attitudes towards women’, Psychology of Women Quarterly 26(2): 131-9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.00051≯.
Roy, S. (2014) ‘Growing up with Rishta’. Civil Society 12: 2 <www.civilsocietyonline.com≯. www.civilsocietyonline.com
Scott, L., Dopson, S., Montgomery, P., Dolan, C. and Ryus, C. (2009) Impact of Providing Sanitary Pads To Poor Girls in Africa, Oxford: University of Oxford.
Snel, M. and Da Silva Wells, C. (2014) ‘Why focus on menstrual hygiene management?’ [online] IRC <www.ircwash.org/blog/why-focus-menstrual-hygiene-management≯ [accessed 11 December 2014]. www.ircwash.org/blog/why-focus-menstrual-hygiene-management
Sommer, M. (2009) ‘Ideologies of sexuality, menstruation and risk: girls’ experiences of puberty and schooling in northern Tanzania’, An International Journal for Research, Intervention and Care 11(4): 383-8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13691050902722372≯.
Uitto, M. and Estola, E. (2009) ‘Gender and emotions in relationships: a group of teachers recalling their own teachers’, Gender and Education 21(5): 517-30 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09540250802667591≯.
UNICEF (2006) Progress for Children: A Report Card on Water and Sanitation [pdf] <www.unicef.org/publications/files/Progress_for_Children_No._5_-_English.pdf≯ [accessed 11 December 2014]. www.unicef.org/publications/files/Progress_for_Children_No._5_-_English.pdf
Wallace, T. and Coles, A. (2005) ‘Water, Gender and Development: An Introduction’, in A. Coles and T. Wallace (eds.), Gender, Water and Development, pp. 1-20, New York: Berg.
Wilson, E., Reeve, J., Pitt, A., Sully, B. and Julious, S. (2012) INSPIRES: Investigating a Reusable Sanitary Pad Intervention in a Rural Educational Setting, Report Series no. 27, Sheffield: University of Sheffield, School of Health and Related Research (ScHARR).
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