Water, sanitation, and hygiene are issues of substantial public health importance. Community-based participatory research approaches such as photovoice can help explore and identify determinants that influence sanitation and hygiene-related behaviours. This study aimed to use photovoice as part of the formative research process to increase understanding of youth’s perceptions of the cultural and contextual factors that influence sanitation and hygiene-related behaviours in Thirumalaikodi, India. First, a school was recruited using convenience sampling; next, 10 participants were purposively selected to participate in an information meeting, seven photo discussion sessions, and one wrap-up session over a three-week period. In each photo discussion session, participant groups selected one ‘trigger’ photograph, and through a structured discussion using SHOWED mnemonic questions (a series of questions that ask participants to describe and reflect upon a chosen photograph), generated a new understanding of issues related to water, sanitation, and hygiene. All sessions were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Conventional content analysis was used to analyse photo discussion session text. Findings revealed that factors such as social structure, education, and culture influence behaviours that determine the sanitary conditions of an individual’s private and public spaces. Furthermore, participants described how descriptive norms generated practices (e.g. littering) that were reinforced and maintained by limited access to waste management systems, attitudinal indifference, and generational beliefs. Findings yielded an in-depth understanding of youth’s perceptions of the cultural and contextual factors that influence sanitation and hygiene-related behaviours. This study also contributes to the advancement of participatory applications in formative research and intervention adaptation processes.

Ajzen, I. (1985) ‘From intentions to actions: a theory of planned behavior’, in J. Kuhl and J. Beckmann (eds), Action Control: From Cognition to Behavior, pp. 11–39, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

Anderson, R.J. (1964) ‘The public health aspects of solid waste disposal’, Public Health Reports 79: 93–6.

Arafat, H.A., Al-Khatib, I.A., Daoud, R. and Shwahneh, H. (2007) ‘Influence of socio-economic factors on street litter generation in the Middle East: effects of education level, age, and type of residence’, Waste Management & Research 25: 363–70 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X07076942>.

Bastien, S., Hetherington, E., Hatfield, J., Kutz, S. and Manyama, M. (2016) ‘Youth-driven innovation in sanitation solutions for Maasai pastoralists in Tanzania: conceptual framework and study design’, Global Journal of Health Education and Promotion 17: 18–42 <http://dx.doi.org/10.18666/GJHEP-2016-V17-I1-7230>.

Bath, J.L., Eneh, P.N., Bakken, A.J., Knox, M.E., Schiedt, M.D. and Campbell, J.M. (2010) ‘The impact of perception and knowledge on the treatment and prevention of intestinal worms in the Manikganj district of Bangladesh’, The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 83: 171–84.

Bauza, V., Reese, H., Routray, P. and Clasen, T. (2019) ‘Child defecation and feces disposal practices and determinants among households after a combined household-level piped water and sanitation intervention in rural Odisha, India’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 100: 1013–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.18-0840>.

Bhattacharya, S., Sharma, D. and Sharma, P. (2018) ‘Swachh Bharat Mission: an integrative approach to attain public health in India’, International Journal of Environment and Health 9: 197–212 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/IJENVH.2018.092800>.

Cialdini, R.B., Reno, R.R. and Kallgren, C.A. (1990) ‘A focus theory of normative conduct: recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58: 1015.

Clasen, T., Boisson, S., Routray, P., Torondel, B., Bell, M., Cumming, O., Ensink, J., Freeman, M., Jenkins, M. and Odagiri, M. (2014) ‘Effectiveness of a rural sanitation programme on diarrhoea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomised trial’, The Lancet Global Health 2: e645–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9>.

Coffey, D., Gupta, A., Hathi, P., Khurana, N., Spears, D., Srivastav, N. and Vyas, S. (2014) ‘Revealed preference for open defecation’, Economic and Political Weekly 49: 43.

Collado, S., Staats, H. and Sancho, P. (2019) ‘Normative influences on adolescents’ self-reported pro-environmental behaviors: the role of parents and friends’, Environment and Behavior 51: 288–314 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013916517744591>.

Cornwall, A. and Jewkes, R. (1995) ‘What is participatory research?’ Social Science & Medicine 41: 1667–76.

Cumming, O. and Cairncross, S. (2016) ‘Can water, sanitation and hygiene help eliminate stunting? Current evidence and policy implications’, Maternal & Child Nutrition 12: 91–105 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12258>.

Directorate of Census Operations Tamil Nadu (2011) District Census Handbook: Vellore, Village and Town Wise Primary Census Abstract, Tamil Nadu: Census of India, Directorate of Census Operations, Tamil Nadu, Chennai.

Dobe, M., Mandal, R.N. and Jha, A. (2013) ‘Social determinants of good hand-washing practice (GHP) among adolescents in a rural Indian community’, Family & Community Health 36: 172–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FCH.0b013e318282ac42>.

Doron, A. and Jeffrey, R. (2018) Waste of a Nation: Garbage and Growth in India, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

Doron, A. and Raja, I. (2015) ‘The cultural politics of shit: class, gender and public space in India’, Postcolonial Studies 18: 189–207 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13688790.2015.1065714>.

Dreibelbis, R., Winch, P.J., Leontsini, E., Hulland, K.R., Ram, P.K., Unicomb, L. and Luby, S.P. (2013) ‘The integrated behavioural model for water, sanitation, and hygiene: a systematic review of behavioural models and a framework for designing and evaluating behaviour change interventions in infrastructure-restricted settings’, BMC Public Health 13: 1 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-1015>.

Ellen, R. and Harris, H. (1997) Concepts of Indigenous Environmental Knowledge in Scientific and Development Studies Literature: A Critical Assessment, APFT, Project, Bureau de Sensibilisation.

Freeman, M.C., Greene, L.E., Dreibelbis, R., Saboori, S., Muga, R., Brumback, B. and Rheingans, R. (2012) ‘Assessing the impact of a school-based water treatment, hygiene and sanitation programme on pupil absence in Nyanza Province, Kenya: a cluster-randomized trial’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 17: 380–91 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2011.02927.x>.

Friedrich, M.N., Binkert, M.E. and Mosler, H.J. (2017) ‘Contextual and psychosocial determinants of effective handwashing technique: recommendations for interventions from a case study in Harare, Zimbabwe’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 96: 430–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.16-0553>.

Glanz, K. and Bishop, D.B. (2010) ‘The role of behavioral science theory in development and implementation of public health interventions’, Annual Review of Public Health 31: 399–418.

Gupta, A., Coffey, D. and Spears, D. (2016) ‘Purity, pollution, and untouchability: challenges affecting the adoption, use, and sustainability of sanitation programmes in rural India’, in P. Bongartz, N. Vernon, and J. Fox (eds.), Sustainable Sanitation for All: Experiences, Challenges, and Innovations, pp. 283–98, Practical Action Publishing, Rugby.

Hall, A., Hewitt, G., Tuffrey, V. and de Silva, N. (2008) ‘A review and meta-analysis of the impact of intestinal worms on child growth and nutrition’, Maternal Child Nutrition 4: 118–236 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8709.2007.00127.x>.

Hsieh, H.-F. and Shannon, S.E. (2005) ‘Three approaches to qualitative content analysis’, Qualitative Health Research 15: 1277–88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687>.

Krauss, R.M., Freedman, J.L. and Whitcup, M. (1978) ‘Field and laboratory studies of littering’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 14: 109–22.

Lau, C.H., Springston, E.E., Sohn, M.-W., Mason, I., Gadola, E., Damitz, M. and Gupta, R.S. (2012) ‘Hand hygiene instruction decreases illness-related absenteeism in elementary schools: a prospective cohort study’, BMC Pediatrics 12: 1 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2431-12-52>.

Liu, J.H. and Sibley, C.G. (2004) ‘Attitudes and behavior in social space: public good interventions based on shared representations and environmental influences’, Journal of Environmental Psychology 24: 373–84 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2003.12.003>.

McMichael, C. (2019) ‘Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in schools in low-income countries: a review of evidence of impact’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16: 359 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16030359>.

Mehrotra, S. and Parida, J.K. (2017) ‘Why is the labour force participation of women declining in India?’ World Development 98: 360–80 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.05.003>.

Narain, S. (2012) ‘Sanitation for all’, Nature 486: 185 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/486185a>.

Pandve, H.T. (2008) ‘Environmental sanitation: an ignored issue in India’, Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 12: 40.

Patton, M.Q. (2002) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Peal, A., Evans, B. and van der Voorden, C. (2010) Hygiene and Sanitation Software: An Overview of Approaches, Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council, Geneva.

Press Information Bureau (2016) Solid Waste Management Rules Revised After 16 Years; Rules Now Extend to Urban and Industrial Areas, Government of India, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, New Delhi.

Saldaña, J. (2015) The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers, Sage Publications, London.

Schmidt, W.P., Aunger, R., Coombes, Y., Maina, P.M., Matiko, C.N., Biran, A. and Curtis, V. (2009) ‘Determinants of handwashing practices in Kenya: the role of media exposure, poverty and infrastructure’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 14: 1534–41 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/486185a>.

Schultz, P.W., Bator, R.J., Large, L.B., Bruni, C.M. and Tabanico, J.J. (2013) ‘Littering in context: personal and environmental predictors of littering behavior’, Environment and Behavior 45: 35–59 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013916511412179>.

Shaffer, R. (1985) Beyond the Dispensary, African Medical and Research Foundation, Nairobi, Kenya.

Singh, R. and Mukherjee, P. (2018) ‘“Whatever she may study, she can’t escape from washing dishes”: gender inequity in secondary education – evidence from a longitudinal study in India’, Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 48: 262–80 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2017.1306434>.

Suffla, S., Seedat, M. and Bawa, U. (2015) ‘Reflexivity as enactment of critical community psychologies: dilemmas of voice and positionality in a multi-country photovoice study’, Community Psychology 43: 9–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21691>.

Sutton-Brown, C.A. (2014) ‘Photovoice: a methodological guide’, Photography and Culture 7: 169–85 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/175145214X13999922103165>.

Tesch, R. (2013) Qualitative Research: Analysis Types and Software, Routledge, London.

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organization (WHO) (2009) Diarrhoea: Why Children Are Still Dying and What Can Be Done, UNICEF, New York: WHO, Geneva.

Usfar, A.A., Iswarawanti, D.N., Davelyna, D. and Dillon, D. (2010) ‘Food and personal hygiene perceptions and practices among caregivers whose children have diarrhea: a qualitative study of urban mothers in Tangerang, Indonesia’, Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior 42: 33–40 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2009.03.003>.

Walker, C.L.F., Perin, J., Aryee, M.J., Boschi-Pinto, C. and Black, R.E. (2012) ‘Diarrhea incidence in low-and middle-income countries in 1990 and 2010: a systematic review’, BMC Public Health 12: 220 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-220>.

Wang, C. and Burris, M.A. (1997) ‘Photovoice: concept, methodology, and use for participatory needs assessment’, Health Education & Behavior 24: 369–87.

Watson, J.A., Ensink, J.H.J., Ramos, M., Benelli, P., Holdsworth, E., Dreibelbis, R. and Cumming, O. (2017) ‘Does targeting children with hygiene promotion messages work? The effect of handwashing promotion targeted at children, on diarrhoea, soil-transmitted helminth infections and behaviour change, in low- and middle-income countries’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 22: 526–38 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12861>.

Williams, M., Kookana, R.S., Mehta, A., Yadav, S.K., Tailor, B.L. and Maheshwari, B. (2019) ‘Emerging contaminants in a river receiving untreated wastewater from an Indian urban centre’, Science of the Total Environment 647: 1256–65 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.084>.

World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2017) Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines, WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation, Geneva.

Ajzen, I. (1985) ‘From intentions to actions: a theory of planned behavior’, in J. Kuhl and J. Beckmann (eds), Action Control: From Cognition to Behavior, pp. 11–39, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

Anderson, R.J. (1964) ‘The public health aspects of solid waste disposal’, Public Health Reports 79: 93–6.

Arafat, H.A., Al-Khatib, I.A., Daoud, R. and Shwahneh, H. (2007) ‘Influence of socio-economic factors on street litter generation in the Middle East: effects of education level, age, and type of residence’, Waste Management & Research 25: 363–70 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X07076942>.

Bastien, S., Hetherington, E., Hatfield, J., Kutz, S. and Manyama, M. (2016) ‘Youth-driven innovation in sanitation solutions for Maasai pastoralists in Tanzania: conceptual framework and study design’, Global Journal of Health Education and Promotion 17: 18–42 <http://dx.doi.org/10.18666/GJHEP-2016-V17-I1-7230>.

Bath, J.L., Eneh, P.N., Bakken, A.J., Knox, M.E., Schiedt, M.D. and Campbell, J.M. (2010) ‘The impact of perception and knowledge on the treatment and prevention of intestinal worms in the Manikganj district of Bangladesh’, The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 83: 171–84.

Bauza, V., Reese, H., Routray, P. and Clasen, T. (2019) ‘Child defecation and feces disposal practices and determinants among households after a combined household-level piped water and sanitation intervention in rural Odisha, India’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 100: 1013–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.18-0840>.

Bhattacharya, S., Sharma, D. and Sharma, P. (2018) ‘Swachh Bharat Mission: an integrative approach to attain public health in India’, International Journal of Environment and Health 9: 197–212 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/IJENVH.2018.092800>.

Cialdini, R.B., Reno, R.R. and Kallgren, C.A. (1990) ‘A focus theory of normative conduct: recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58: 1015.

Clasen, T., Boisson, S., Routray, P., Torondel, B., Bell, M., Cumming, O., Ensink, J., Freeman, M., Jenkins, M. and Odagiri, M. (2014) ‘Effectiveness of a rural sanitation programme on diarrhoea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomised trial’, The Lancet Global Health 2: e645–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9>.

Coffey, D., Gupta, A., Hathi, P., Khurana, N., Spears, D., Srivastav, N. and Vyas, S. (2014) ‘Revealed preference for open defecation’, Economic and Political Weekly 49: 43.

Collado, S., Staats, H. and Sancho, P. (2019) ‘Normative influences on adolescents’ self-reported pro-environmental behaviors: the role of parents and friends’, Environment and Behavior 51: 288–314 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013916517744591>.

Cornwall, A. and Jewkes, R. (1995) ‘What is participatory research?’ Social Science & Medicine 41: 1667–76.

Cumming, O. and Cairncross, S. (2016) ‘Can water, sanitation and hygiene help eliminate stunting? Current evidence and policy implications’, Maternal & Child Nutrition 12: 91–105 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12258>.

Directorate of Census Operations Tamil Nadu (2011) District Census Handbook: Vellore, Village and Town Wise Primary Census Abstract, Tamil Nadu: Census of India, Directorate of Census Operations, Tamil Nadu, Chennai.

Dobe, M., Mandal, R.N. and Jha, A. (2013) ‘Social determinants of good hand-washing practice (GHP) among adolescents in a rural Indian community’, Family & Community Health 36: 172–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FCH.0b013e318282ac42>.

Doron, A. and Jeffrey, R. (2018) Waste of a Nation: Garbage and Growth in India, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

Doron, A. and Raja, I. (2015) ‘The cultural politics of shit: class, gender and public space in India’, Postcolonial Studies 18: 189–207 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13688790.2015.1065714>.

Dreibelbis, R., Winch, P.J., Leontsini, E., Hulland, K.R., Ram, P.K., Unicomb, L. and Luby, S.P. (2013) ‘The integrated behavioural model for water, sanitation, and hygiene: a systematic review of behavioural models and a framework for designing and evaluating behaviour change interventions in infrastructure-restricted settings’, BMC Public Health 13: 1 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-1015>.

Ellen, R. and Harris, H. (1997) Concepts of Indigenous Environmental Knowledge in Scientific and Development Studies Literature: A Critical Assessment, APFT, Project, Bureau de Sensibilisation.

Freeman, M.C., Greene, L.E., Dreibelbis, R., Saboori, S., Muga, R., Brumback, B. and Rheingans, R. (2012) ‘Assessing the impact of a school-based water treatment, hygiene and sanitation programme on pupil absence in Nyanza Province, Kenya: a cluster-randomized trial’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 17: 380–91 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2011.02927.x>.

Friedrich, M.N., Binkert, M.E. and Mosler, H.J. (2017) ‘Contextual and psychosocial determinants of effective handwashing technique: recommendations for interventions from a case study in Harare, Zimbabwe’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 96: 430–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.16-0553>.

Glanz, K. and Bishop, D.B. (2010) ‘The role of behavioral science theory in development and implementation of public health interventions’, Annual Review of Public Health 31: 399–418.

Gupta, A., Coffey, D. and Spears, D. (2016) ‘Purity, pollution, and untouchability: challenges affecting the adoption, use, and sustainability of sanitation programmes in rural India’, in P. Bongartz, N. Vernon, and J. Fox (eds.), Sustainable Sanitation for All: Experiences, Challenges, and Innovations, pp. 283–98, Practical Action Publishing, Rugby.

Hall, A., Hewitt, G., Tuffrey, V. and de Silva, N. (2008) ‘A review and meta-analysis of the impact of intestinal worms on child growth and nutrition’, Maternal Child Nutrition 4: 118–236 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8709.2007.00127.x>.

Hsieh, H.-F. and Shannon, S.E. (2005) ‘Three approaches to qualitative content analysis’, Qualitative Health Research 15: 1277–88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687>.

Krauss, R.M., Freedman, J.L. and Whitcup, M. (1978) ‘Field and laboratory studies of littering’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 14: 109–22.

Lau, C.H., Springston, E.E., Sohn, M.-W., Mason, I., Gadola, E., Damitz, M. and Gupta, R.S. (2012) ‘Hand hygiene instruction decreases illness-related absenteeism in elementary schools: a prospective cohort study’, BMC Pediatrics 12: 1 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2431-12-52>.

Liu, J.H. and Sibley, C.G. (2004) ‘Attitudes and behavior in social space: public good interventions based on shared representations and environmental influences’, Journal of Environmental Psychology 24: 373–84 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2003.12.003>.

McMichael, C. (2019) ‘Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in schools in low-income countries: a review of evidence of impact’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16: 359 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16030359>.

Mehrotra, S. and Parida, J.K. (2017) ‘Why is the labour force participation of women declining in India?’ World Development 98: 360–80 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.05.003>.

Narain, S. (2012) ‘Sanitation for all’, Nature 486: 185 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/486185a>.

Pandve, H.T. (2008) ‘Environmental sanitation: an ignored issue in India’, Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 12: 40.

Patton, M.Q. (2002) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Peal, A., Evans, B. and van der Voorden, C. (2010) Hygiene and Sanitation Software: An Overview of Approaches, Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council, Geneva.

Press Information Bureau (2016) Solid Waste Management Rules Revised After 16 Years; Rules Now Extend to Urban and Industrial Areas, Government of India, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, New Delhi.

Saldaña, J. (2015) The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers, Sage Publications, London.

Schmidt, W.P., Aunger, R., Coombes, Y., Maina, P.M., Matiko, C.N., Biran, A. and Curtis, V. (2009) ‘Determinants of handwashing practices in Kenya: the role of media exposure, poverty and infrastructure’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 14: 1534–41 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/486185a>.

Schultz, P.W., Bator, R.J., Large, L.B., Bruni, C.M. and Tabanico, J.J. (2013) ‘Littering in context: personal and environmental predictors of littering behavior’, Environment and Behavior 45: 35–59 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013916511412179>.

Shaffer, R. (1985) Beyond the Dispensary, African Medical and Research Foundation, Nairobi, Kenya.

Singh, R. and Mukherjee, P. (2018) ‘“Whatever she may study, she can’t escape from washing dishes”: gender inequity in secondary education – evidence from a longitudinal study in India’, Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 48: 262–80 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2017.1306434>.

Suffla, S., Seedat, M. and Bawa, U. (2015) ‘Reflexivity as enactment of critical community psychologies: dilemmas of voice and positionality in a multi-country photovoice study’, Community Psychology 43: 9–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21691>.

Sutton-Brown, C.A. (2014) ‘Photovoice: a methodological guide’, Photography and Culture 7: 169–85 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/175145214X13999922103165>.

Tesch, R. (2013) Qualitative Research: Analysis Types and Software, Routledge, London.

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organization (WHO) (2009) Diarrhoea: Why Children Are Still Dying and What Can Be Done, UNICEF, New York: WHO, Geneva.

Usfar, A.A., Iswarawanti, D.N., Davelyna, D. and Dillon, D. (2010) ‘Food and personal hygiene perceptions and practices among caregivers whose children have diarrhea: a qualitative study of urban mothers in Tangerang, Indonesia’, Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior 42: 33–40 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2009.03.003>.

Walker, C.L.F., Perin, J., Aryee, M.J., Boschi-Pinto, C. and Black, R.E. (2012) ‘Diarrhea incidence in low-and middle-income countries in 1990 and 2010: a systematic review’, BMC Public Health 12: 220 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-220>.

Wang, C. and Burris, M.A. (1997) ‘Photovoice: concept, methodology, and use for participatory needs assessment’, Health Education & Behavior 24: 369–87.

Watson, J.A., Ensink, J.H.J., Ramos, M., Benelli, P., Holdsworth, E., Dreibelbis, R. and Cumming, O. (2017) ‘Does targeting children with hygiene promotion messages work? The effect of handwashing promotion targeted at children, on diarrhoea, soil-transmitted helminth infections and behaviour change, in low- and middle-income countries’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 22: 526–38 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12861>.

Williams, M., Kookana, R.S., Mehta, A., Yadav, S.K., Tailor, B.L. and Maheshwari, B. (2019) ‘Emerging contaminants in a river receiving untreated wastewater from an Indian urban centre’, Science of the Total Environment 647: 1256–65 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.084>.

World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2017) Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines, WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation, Geneva.

Ajzen, I. (1985) ‘From intentions to actions: a theory of planned behavior’, in J. Kuhl and J. Beckmann (eds), Action Control: From Cognition to Behavior, pp. 11–39, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

Anderson, R.J. (1964) ‘The public health aspects of solid waste disposal’, Public Health Reports 79: 93–6.

Arafat, H.A., Al-Khatib, I.A., Daoud, R. and Shwahneh, H. (2007) ‘Influence of socio-economic factors on street litter generation in the Middle East: effects of education level, age, and type of residence’, Waste Management & Research 25: 363–70 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X07076942>.

Bastien, S., Hetherington, E., Hatfield, J., Kutz, S. and Manyama, M. (2016) ‘Youth-driven innovation in sanitation solutions for Maasai pastoralists in Tanzania: conceptual framework and study design’, Global Journal of Health Education and Promotion 17: 18–42 <http://dx.doi.org/10.18666/GJHEP-2016-V17-I1-7230>.

Bath, J.L., Eneh, P.N., Bakken, A.J., Knox, M.E., Schiedt, M.D. and Campbell, J.M. (2010) ‘The impact of perception and knowledge on the treatment and prevention of intestinal worms in the Manikganj district of Bangladesh’, The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 83: 171–84.

Bauza, V., Reese, H., Routray, P. and Clasen, T. (2019) ‘Child defecation and feces disposal practices and determinants among households after a combined household-level piped water and sanitation intervention in rural Odisha, India’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 100: 1013–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.18-0840>.

Bhattacharya, S., Sharma, D. and Sharma, P. (2018) ‘Swachh Bharat Mission: an integrative approach to attain public health in India’, International Journal of Environment and Health 9: 197–212 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/IJENVH.2018.092800>.

Cialdini, R.B., Reno, R.R. and Kallgren, C.A. (1990) ‘A focus theory of normative conduct: recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58: 1015.

Clasen, T., Boisson, S., Routray, P., Torondel, B., Bell, M., Cumming, O., Ensink, J., Freeman, M., Jenkins, M. and Odagiri, M. (2014) ‘Effectiveness of a rural sanitation programme on diarrhoea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomised trial’, The Lancet Global Health 2: e645–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9>.

Coffey, D., Gupta, A., Hathi, P., Khurana, N., Spears, D., Srivastav, N. and Vyas, S. (2014) ‘Revealed preference for open defecation’, Economic and Political Weekly 49: 43.

Collado, S., Staats, H. and Sancho, P. (2019) ‘Normative influences on adolescents’ self-reported pro-environmental behaviors: the role of parents and friends’, Environment and Behavior 51: 288–314 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013916517744591>.

Cornwall, A. and Jewkes, R. (1995) ‘What is participatory research?’ Social Science & Medicine 41: 1667–76.

Cumming, O. and Cairncross, S. (2016) ‘Can water, sanitation and hygiene help eliminate stunting? Current evidence and policy implications’, Maternal & Child Nutrition 12: 91–105 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12258>.

Directorate of Census Operations Tamil Nadu (2011) District Census Handbook: Vellore, Village and Town Wise Primary Census Abstract, Tamil Nadu: Census of India, Directorate of Census Operations, Tamil Nadu, Chennai.

Dobe, M., Mandal, R.N. and Jha, A. (2013) ‘Social determinants of good hand-washing practice (GHP) among adolescents in a rural Indian community’, Family & Community Health 36: 172–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FCH.0b013e318282ac42>.

Doron, A. and Jeffrey, R. (2018) Waste of a Nation: Garbage and Growth in India, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

Doron, A. and Raja, I. (2015) ‘The cultural politics of shit: class, gender and public space in India’, Postcolonial Studies 18: 189–207 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13688790.2015.1065714>.

Dreibelbis, R., Winch, P.J., Leontsini, E., Hulland, K.R., Ram, P.K., Unicomb, L. and Luby, S.P. (2013) ‘The integrated behavioural model for water, sanitation, and hygiene: a systematic review of behavioural models and a framework for designing and evaluating behaviour change interventions in infrastructure-restricted settings’, BMC Public Health 13: 1 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-1015>.

Ellen, R. and Harris, H. (1997) Concepts of Indigenous Environmental Knowledge in Scientific and Development Studies Literature: A Critical Assessment, APFT, Project, Bureau de Sensibilisation.

Freeman, M.C., Greene, L.E., Dreibelbis, R., Saboori, S., Muga, R., Brumback, B. and Rheingans, R. (2012) ‘Assessing the impact of a school-based water treatment, hygiene and sanitation programme on pupil absence in Nyanza Province, Kenya: a cluster-randomized trial’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 17: 380–91 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2011.02927.x>.

Friedrich, M.N., Binkert, M.E. and Mosler, H.J. (2017) ‘Contextual and psychosocial determinants of effective handwashing technique: recommendations for interventions from a case study in Harare, Zimbabwe’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 96: 430–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.16-0553>.

Glanz, K. and Bishop, D.B. (2010) ‘The role of behavioral science theory in development and implementation of public health interventions’, Annual Review of Public Health 31: 399–418.

Gupta, A., Coffey, D. and Spears, D. (2016) ‘Purity, pollution, and untouchability: challenges affecting the adoption, use, and sustainability of sanitation programmes in rural India’, in P. Bongartz, N. Vernon, and J. Fox (eds.), Sustainable Sanitation for All: Experiences, Challenges, and Innovations, pp. 283–98, Practical Action Publishing, Rugby.

Hall, A., Hewitt, G., Tuffrey, V. and de Silva, N. (2008) ‘A review and meta-analysis of the impact of intestinal worms on child growth and nutrition’, Maternal Child Nutrition 4: 118–236 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8709.2007.00127.x>.

Hsieh, H.-F. and Shannon, S.E. (2005) ‘Three approaches to qualitative content analysis’, Qualitative Health Research 15: 1277–88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687>.

Krauss, R.M., Freedman, J.L. and Whitcup, M. (1978) ‘Field and laboratory studies of littering’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 14: 109–22.

Lau, C.H., Springston, E.E., Sohn, M.-W., Mason, I., Gadola, E., Damitz, M. and Gupta, R.S. (2012) ‘Hand hygiene instruction decreases illness-related absenteeism in elementary schools: a prospective cohort study’, BMC Pediatrics 12: 1 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2431-12-52>.

Liu, J.H. and Sibley, C.G. (2004) ‘Attitudes and behavior in social space: public good interventions based on shared representations and environmental influences’, Journal of Environmental Psychology 24: 373–84 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2003.12.003>.

McMichael, C. (2019) ‘Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in schools in low-income countries: a review of evidence of impact’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16: 359 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16030359>.

Mehrotra, S. and Parida, J.K. (2017) ‘Why is the labour force participation of women declining in India?’ World Development 98: 360–80 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.05.003>.

Narain, S. (2012) ‘Sanitation for all’, Nature 486: 185 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/486185a>.

Pandve, H.T. (2008) ‘Environmental sanitation: an ignored issue in India’, Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 12: 40.

Patton, M.Q. (2002) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Peal, A., Evans, B. and van der Voorden, C. (2010) Hygiene and Sanitation Software: An Overview of Approaches, Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council, Geneva.

Press Information Bureau (2016) Solid Waste Management Rules Revised After 16 Years; Rules Now Extend to Urban and Industrial Areas, Government of India, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, New Delhi.

Saldaña, J. (2015) The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers, Sage Publications, London.

Schmidt, W.P., Aunger, R., Coombes, Y., Maina, P.M., Matiko, C.N., Biran, A. and Curtis, V. (2009) ‘Determinants of handwashing practices in Kenya: the role of media exposure, poverty and infrastructure’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 14: 1534–41 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/486185a>.

Schultz, P.W., Bator, R.J., Large, L.B., Bruni, C.M. and Tabanico, J.J. (2013) ‘Littering in context: personal and environmental predictors of littering behavior’, Environment and Behavior 45: 35–59 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013916511412179>.

Shaffer, R. (1985) Beyond the Dispensary, African Medical and Research Foundation, Nairobi, Kenya.

Singh, R. and Mukherjee, P. (2018) ‘“Whatever she may study, she can’t escape from washing dishes”: gender inequity in secondary education – evidence from a longitudinal study in India’, Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 48: 262–80 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2017.1306434>.

Suffla, S., Seedat, M. and Bawa, U. (2015) ‘Reflexivity as enactment of critical community psychologies: dilemmas of voice and positionality in a multi-country photovoice study’, Community Psychology 43: 9–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21691>.

Sutton-Brown, C.A. (2014) ‘Photovoice: a methodological guide’, Photography and Culture 7: 169–85 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/175145214X13999922103165>.

Tesch, R. (2013) Qualitative Research: Analysis Types and Software, Routledge, London.

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organization (WHO) (2009) Diarrhoea: Why Children Are Still Dying and What Can Be Done, UNICEF, New York: WHO, Geneva.

Usfar, A.A., Iswarawanti, D.N., Davelyna, D. and Dillon, D. (2010) ‘Food and personal hygiene perceptions and practices among caregivers whose children have diarrhea: a qualitative study of urban mothers in Tangerang, Indonesia’, Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior 42: 33–40 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2009.03.003>.

Walker, C.L.F., Perin, J., Aryee, M.J., Boschi-Pinto, C. and Black, R.E. (2012) ‘Diarrhea incidence in low-and middle-income countries in 1990 and 2010: a systematic review’, BMC Public Health 12: 220 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-220>.

Wang, C. and Burris, M.A. (1997) ‘Photovoice: concept, methodology, and use for participatory needs assessment’, Health Education & Behavior 24: 369–87.

Watson, J.A., Ensink, J.H.J., Ramos, M., Benelli, P., Holdsworth, E., Dreibelbis, R. and Cumming, O. (2017) ‘Does targeting children with hygiene promotion messages work? The effect of handwashing promotion targeted at children, on diarrhoea, soil-transmitted helminth infections and behaviour change, in low- and middle-income countries’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 22: 526–38 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12861>.

Williams, M., Kookana, R.S., Mehta, A., Yadav, S.K., Tailor, B.L. and Maheshwari, B. (2019) ‘Emerging contaminants in a river receiving untreated wastewater from an Indian urban centre’, Science of the Total Environment 647: 1256–65 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.084>.

World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2017) Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines, WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation, Geneva.

Ajzen, I. (1985) ‘From intentions to actions: a theory of planned behavior’, in J. Kuhl and J. Beckmann (eds), Action Control: From Cognition to Behavior, pp. 11–39, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

Anderson, R.J. (1964) ‘The public health aspects of solid waste disposal’, Public Health Reports 79: 93–6.

Arafat, H.A., Al-Khatib, I.A., Daoud, R. and Shwahneh, H. (2007) ‘Influence of socio-economic factors on street litter generation in the Middle East: effects of education level, age, and type of residence’, Waste Management & Research 25: 363–70 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X07076942>.

Bastien, S., Hetherington, E., Hatfield, J., Kutz, S. and Manyama, M. (2016) ‘Youth-driven innovation in sanitation solutions for Maasai pastoralists in Tanzania: conceptual framework and study design’, Global Journal of Health Education and Promotion 17: 18–42 <http://dx.doi.org/10.18666/GJHEP-2016-V17-I1-7230>.

Bath, J.L., Eneh, P.N., Bakken, A.J., Knox, M.E., Schiedt, M.D. and Campbell, J.M. (2010) ‘The impact of perception and knowledge on the treatment and prevention of intestinal worms in the Manikganj district of Bangladesh’, The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 83: 171–84.

Bauza, V., Reese, H., Routray, P. and Clasen, T. (2019) ‘Child defecation and feces disposal practices and determinants among households after a combined household-level piped water and sanitation intervention in rural Odisha, India’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 100: 1013–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.18-0840>.

Bhattacharya, S., Sharma, D. and Sharma, P. (2018) ‘Swachh Bharat Mission: an integrative approach to attain public health in India’, International Journal of Environment and Health 9: 197–212 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/IJENVH.2018.092800>.

Cialdini, R.B., Reno, R.R. and Kallgren, C.A. (1990) ‘A focus theory of normative conduct: recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58: 1015.

Clasen, T., Boisson, S., Routray, P., Torondel, B., Bell, M., Cumming, O., Ensink, J., Freeman, M., Jenkins, M. and Odagiri, M. (2014) ‘Effectiveness of a rural sanitation programme on diarrhoea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomised trial’, The Lancet Global Health 2: e645–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(14)70307-9>.

Coffey, D., Gupta, A., Hathi, P., Khurana, N., Spears, D., Srivastav, N. and Vyas, S. (2014) ‘Revealed preference for open defecation’, Economic and Political Weekly 49: 43.

Collado, S., Staats, H. and Sancho, P. (2019) ‘Normative influences on adolescents’ self-reported pro-environmental behaviors: the role of parents and friends’, Environment and Behavior 51: 288–314 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013916517744591>.

Cornwall, A. and Jewkes, R. (1995) ‘What is participatory research?’ Social Science & Medicine 41: 1667–76.

Cumming, O. and Cairncross, S. (2016) ‘Can water, sanitation and hygiene help eliminate stunting? Current evidence and policy implications’, Maternal & Child Nutrition 12: 91–105 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12258>.

Directorate of Census Operations Tamil Nadu (2011) District Census Handbook: Vellore, Village and Town Wise Primary Census Abstract, Tamil Nadu: Census of India, Directorate of Census Operations, Tamil Nadu, Chennai.

Dobe, M., Mandal, R.N. and Jha, A. (2013) ‘Social determinants of good hand-washing practice (GHP) among adolescents in a rural Indian community’, Family & Community Health 36: 172–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FCH.0b013e318282ac42>.

Doron, A. and Jeffrey, R. (2018) Waste of a Nation: Garbage and Growth in India, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

Doron, A. and Raja, I. (2015) ‘The cultural politics of shit: class, gender and public space in India’, Postcolonial Studies 18: 189–207 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13688790.2015.1065714>.

Dreibelbis, R., Winch, P.J., Leontsini, E., Hulland, K.R., Ram, P.K., Unicomb, L. and Luby, S.P. (2013) ‘The integrated behavioural model for water, sanitation, and hygiene: a systematic review of behavioural models and a framework for designing and evaluating behaviour change interventions in infrastructure-restricted settings’, BMC Public Health 13: 1 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-1015>.

Ellen, R. and Harris, H. (1997) Concepts of Indigenous Environmental Knowledge in Scientific and Development Studies Literature: A Critical Assessment, APFT, Project, Bureau de Sensibilisation.

Freeman, M.C., Greene, L.E., Dreibelbis, R., Saboori, S., Muga, R., Brumback, B. and Rheingans, R. (2012) ‘Assessing the impact of a school-based water treatment, hygiene and sanitation programme on pupil absence in Nyanza Province, Kenya: a cluster-randomized trial’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 17: 380–91 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2011.02927.x>.

Friedrich, M.N., Binkert, M.E. and Mosler, H.J. (2017) ‘Contextual and psychosocial determinants of effective handwashing technique: recommendations for interventions from a case study in Harare, Zimbabwe’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 96: 430–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.16-0553>.

Glanz, K. and Bishop, D.B. (2010) ‘The role of behavioral science theory in development and implementation of public health interventions’, Annual Review of Public Health 31: 399–418.

Gupta, A., Coffey, D. and Spears, D. (2016) ‘Purity, pollution, and untouchability: challenges affecting the adoption, use, and sustainability of sanitation programmes in rural India’, in P. Bongartz, N. Vernon, and J. Fox (eds.), Sustainable Sanitation for All: Experiences, Challenges, and Innovations, pp. 283–98, Practical Action Publishing, Rugby.

Hall, A., Hewitt, G., Tuffrey, V. and de Silva, N. (2008) ‘A review and meta-analysis of the impact of intestinal worms on child growth and nutrition’, Maternal Child Nutrition 4: 118–236 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8709.2007.00127.x>.

Hsieh, H.-F. and Shannon, S.E. (2005) ‘Three approaches to qualitative content analysis’, Qualitative Health Research 15: 1277–88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687>.

Krauss, R.M., Freedman, J.L. and Whitcup, M. (1978) ‘Field and laboratory studies of littering’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 14: 109–22.

Lau, C.H., Springston, E.E., Sohn, M.-W., Mason, I., Gadola, E., Damitz, M. and Gupta, R.S. (2012) ‘Hand hygiene instruction decreases illness-related absenteeism in elementary schools: a prospective cohort study’, BMC Pediatrics 12: 1 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2431-12-52>.

Liu, J.H. and Sibley, C.G. (2004) ‘Attitudes and behavior in social space: public good interventions based on shared representations and environmental influences’, Journal of Environmental Psychology 24: 373–84 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2003.12.003>.

McMichael, C. (2019) ‘Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in schools in low-income countries: a review of evidence of impact’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16: 359 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16030359>.

Mehrotra, S. and Parida, J.K. (2017) ‘Why is the labour force participation of women declining in India?’ World Development 98: 360–80 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.05.003>.

Narain, S. (2012) ‘Sanitation for all’, Nature 486: 185 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/486185a>.

Pandve, H.T. (2008) ‘Environmental sanitation: an ignored issue in India’, Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 12: 40.

Patton, M.Q. (2002) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Peal, A., Evans, B. and van der Voorden, C. (2010) Hygiene and Sanitation Software: An Overview of Approaches, Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council, Geneva.

Press Information Bureau (2016) Solid Waste Management Rules Revised After 16 Years; Rules Now Extend to Urban and Industrial Areas, Government of India, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, New Delhi.

Saldaña, J. (2015) The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers, Sage Publications, London.

Schmidt, W.P., Aunger, R., Coombes, Y., Maina, P.M., Matiko, C.N., Biran, A. and Curtis, V. (2009) ‘Determinants of handwashing practices in Kenya: the role of media exposure, poverty and infrastructure’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 14: 1534–41 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/486185a>.

Schultz, P.W., Bator, R.J., Large, L.B., Bruni, C.M. and Tabanico, J.J. (2013) ‘Littering in context: personal and environmental predictors of littering behavior’, Environment and Behavior 45: 35–59 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013916511412179>.

Shaffer, R. (1985) Beyond the Dispensary, African Medical and Research Foundation, Nairobi, Kenya.

Singh, R. and Mukherjee, P. (2018) ‘“Whatever she may study, she can’t escape from washing dishes”: gender inequity in secondary education – evidence from a longitudinal study in India’, Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 48: 262–80 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2017.1306434>.

Suffla, S., Seedat, M. and Bawa, U. (2015) ‘Reflexivity as enactment of critical community psychologies: dilemmas of voice and positionality in a multi-country photovoice study’, Community Psychology 43: 9–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21691>.

Sutton-Brown, C.A. (2014) ‘Photovoice: a methodological guide’, Photography and Culture 7: 169–85 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/175145214X13999922103165>.

Tesch, R. (2013) Qualitative Research: Analysis Types and Software, Routledge, London.

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organization (WHO) (2009) Diarrhoea: Why Children Are Still Dying and What Can Be Done, UNICEF, New York: WHO, Geneva.

Usfar, A.A., Iswarawanti, D.N., Davelyna, D. and Dillon, D. (2010) ‘Food and personal hygiene perceptions and practices among caregivers whose children have diarrhea: a qualitative study of urban mothers in Tangerang, Indonesia’, Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior 42: 33–40 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2009.03.003>.

Walker, C.L.F., Perin, J., Aryee, M.J., Boschi-Pinto, C. and Black, R.E. (2012) ‘Diarrhea incidence in low-and middle-income countries in 1990 and 2010: a systematic review’, BMC Public Health 12: 220 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-220>.

Wang, C. and Burris, M.A. (1997) ‘Photovoice: concept, methodology, and use for participatory needs assessment’, Health Education & Behavior 24: 369–87.

Watson, J.A., Ensink, J.H.J., Ramos, M., Benelli, P., Holdsworth, E., Dreibelbis, R. and Cumming, O. (2017) ‘Does targeting children with hygiene promotion messages work? The effect of handwashing promotion targeted at children, on diarrhoea, soil-transmitted helminth infections and behaviour change, in low- and middle-income countries’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 22: 526–38 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12861>.

Williams, M., Kookana, R.S., Mehta, A., Yadav, S.K., Tailor, B.L. and Maheshwari, B. (2019) ‘Emerging contaminants in a river receiving untreated wastewater from an Indian urban centre’, Science of the Total Environment 647: 1256–65 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.084>.

World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2017) Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines, WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation, Geneva.