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• (Article) Production, consumption, and quality attributes of Akpan - a yoghurt-like cereal product from West Africa

  01.11.2012
  Akpan is a high-potential, traditional yoghurt-like product made from fermented cereal starch, and consumed as a thirst-quenching beverage in Benin. This study investigated the characteristics of consumers, the traditional processing techniques and constraints, and the quality attributes of the product in order to find out the best options for possible industrial development. For this purpose, a survey was carried out in different municipalities using a questionnaire administered to stakeholders. While the production and commercialization of Akpan are undertaken exclusively by women, consumption cuts across all classes of people, with consumers in a wide range of socio-cultural groups, ages, and educational levels. Four types of Akpan were encountered, varying in their raw materials and processing technologies. Maize and sorghum were used either singly or in combination through submerged or solid-state fermentation processes. Among the product types, Akpan from maize ogi was the most preferred, mainly because of its long-established history, white colour, sour taste, and pronounced ogi aroma.

• (Article) Improving food security in famine-prone areas using invasive and underutilized prosopis trees

  01.11.2012
  Climate change is already affecting food security across drylands in Africa and Asia. With challenges expected to increase in the future, peasant farmers, pastoralists, and policy-makers need as many options as possible available to them. This paper introduces the long golden fruit of the much-criticized prosopis tree. Wild prosopis beans are rich in protein, carbohydrates, and essential amino acids, and they were for centuries a staple food for indigenous peoples in the Americas. But in countries where they have been introduced they are not being eaten. The millions of tonnes produced each year are at best browsed by livestock, at worst left to rot. Advances in transforming prosopis into a valuable resource in famine-prone areas in the Greater Horn of Africa are presented, and governments, development organizations, and humanitarian agencies are invited to consider adopting this innovation.

• (Article) Local production of ready-to-use therapeutic food for the treatment of severe acute malnutrition

  01.11.2012
  Ready-to-use therapeutic food (RUTF) is a nutrient-dense paste that is an effective treatment for children with severe acute malnutrition using community-based therapeutic care (CTC). This paper describes the background to the development of local production of RUTF in famine-affected countries, its composition and standards, method of production, packaging, and quality assurance.

• (Article) Successful farmer collective action to integrate food production into value chains

  01.11.2012
  In the past decade, a broad variety of producer organizational innovations has emerged which contributed to reducing small producers’ barriers to market entry while improving policy-making. This paper seeks to identify the factors that are responsible for this successful collective action by small-scale producers. Analysing empirical worldwide cases, this study further suggests that effective collective action results from the building of two interdependent types of relationships: first, bonding or intra-group relationships among small producers within local organizations. Bonding relations empower small-scale producers, enhancing their individual and group capacities to make purposive choices and to transform these choices into desired outcomes (autonomous capacity of action). The second type of relationship is bridging or inter-group relations between small-scale producer organizations to create apex organizations. Bridging relations improve their ability to exert influence on policy-making and on markets to improve the condition of market transactions (bargaining power). With close bonding and strong bridging relations, small-scale producers who were once excluded from markets and social choice have gained the ability to link with powerful market actors and policy-makers thereby playing a greater role in meeting the growing world food demand.

• (Article) Grain storage in Africa: Learning from past experiences

  01.11.2012
  Rising food prices have once again drawn attention to the issue of postharvest losses and to the role that good-quality storage can play in reducing those losses. Donor support in this area is increasing. However, evidence from past interventions in Africa during the last wave of enthusiasm for work in the post-harvest area gives some cause for concern that investments in storage improvement may not be too effective. This paper briefly reviews past experiences with grain storage upgrading, from farm-level stores up to large-scale infrastructure for marketing boards and food reserves. Lessons from those experiences emphasize that storage development must not be carried out as isolated ad hoc interventions but must be seen within the context of the operations of the entire supply chain, taking full account of the way marketing systems function, the relationships within those systems, and the economic viability of proposed interventions.

• (Article) Setting up a food-processing unit - Part 1: Selecting the best location

  01.05.2012
  This is the first of a series of articles on the decisions that face small-scale processors when starting a new business or when expanding to a larger building. The article focuses on the factors that should be taken into account when selecting the correct location for a food factory. Subsequent articles will examine the design and layout of food production units and the materials that are needed to construct food processing buildings and equipment.

• (Article) Production, consumption, and quality attributes of Lanhouin, a fish-based condiment from West Africa

  01.05.2012
  Indigenous knowledge related to Lanhouin processing, commercialization, and consumption was investigated through a survey in the Mono District in the south of Benin using a questionnaire. The questionnaire focused on the socio-cultural profile of actors, the raw materials used for the processing, the technologies used, the quality attributes, the forms of consumption, and the storage of the product. The data collected were analysed by means of descriptive statistics and correspondence analysis. The results showed that Lanhouin is generally processed in informal small-scale plants. A large number of women are engaged in the production and the trade of Lanhouin and this constitutes the main source of income for most of them. Three variants of technologies were used to produce Lanhouin, but all apparently concluded in the same end product. The appreciation of the quality of Lanhouin by the actors is mainly based on sensory attributes such as the colour, texture, aroma, consistency of flesh, and the general appearance of the product. In Benin, Lanhouin serves various markets: domestic markets and sub-regional markets that contribute to an expanding market. As regards the forms of consumption, Lanhouin is used as a taste and flavour enhancing condiment in some main dishes such as vegetable, slimy vegetable, and tomato sauces.

• (Article) Chain coordinators and their role in selected food supply chains: Lessons from Pakistan, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom

  01.05.2012
  The main objective of this article is to identify chain coordinators from the selected food chains (dairy, meat, fruits, and vegetables) of small and medium-sized enterprises. The specific competencies of the coordinators were explored - their roles and the nature of chains' coordination - using in-depth interviews with key informants in the UK, New Zealand, and Pakistan. The results show that chief executive officers in medium-sized companies and managing directors/owners in small businesses are strategic coordinators; operations coordinators also handle activities at operational level. The effectiveness of chain coordination and relationships is a function of these chain coordinators' innate or acquired abilities, available tangible resources, and their actual efforts to effectively utilize the resources for all coordination activities. Furthermore, an integrated chain system that supports small farmers is essential to achieve successful coordination. Two-way information sharing and advance payments to the farmers also assist in achieving coordination objectives and effective production.

• (Article) Impact of SPS standards on agri-food trade: A case study of the invasive fruit fly (Bactrocera invadens) in Kenya

  01.05.2012
  Sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures have become increasingly important for trade in agricultural and food products, and may particularly affect developing countries' ability to access higher value markets. This article presents a case study of trade-related problems caused by the invasive fruit fly (Bactrocera invadens) in Kenya, which led to a ban of avocado exports to South Africa. The ban had substantial economic, social, environmental, and institutional consequences for the agricultural sector in Kenya, which (as in many developing countries) provides a livelihood and source of income for thousands of smallholder producers. The Kenyan public and private sectors are now in the process of introducing a variety of technical and institutional measures to resolve the problem and to reduce SPS risks for the agri-food sector. The case study is illustrative of the importance of a supportive infrastructure to implement SPS control measures and to ensure continued international trade in agri-food products.

• (Article) Private voluntary standards in livestock and meat sectors: Implications for developing countries

  01.05.2012
  Over recent decades, international trade in meat products has increased enormously. Developing countries have had a leading role in the recent dynamics of the meat sector and have witnessed the strongest growth in consumption, production, and international trade. International trade in food products is governed by a growing array of public and private food standards. In recent decades, private voluntary standards developed in Western countries have become a key element of governance in meat food chains. The proliferation and influence of these private standards may represent both an opportunity and a threat for livestock producers and, in the coming years, might have increasingly important developmental implications for poorer countries, including those in sub-Saharan Africa. The purpose of this work is to shed light on the current practice in the application of these standards and to examine the present and future implications for developing countries, especially in Africa.

• (Article) The impact of Fairtrade: Evidence, shaping factors, and future pathways

  01.05.2012
  What is the evidence base for the impact of Fairtrade and how and why is the impact agenda evolving? We explore issues of design and the use of theories of change in mapping impact pathways as part of evaluations. We outline some of the findings on the different dimensions of impact (e.g. household income, livelihoods and quality of life, organizational, wider community and economy impacts), as well as environmental, empowerment, and gender impacts. This analysis draws upon a meta-review which analysed studies available in 2009 and also on more recently published studies. Finally, we identify the five key factors shaping the impact of Fairtrade and the implications for the impact assessment agenda.

• (Article) Environmental and economic costs and benefits from sustainable certification of coffee in Nicaragua

  01.05.2012
  Sustainable certifications have been promoted as a means of recognizing environmental benefits and generating economic benefits from sustainable coffee production. A case study is presented from one region of Nicaragua where these benefits were evaluated and two producer organizations were supported to improve their access to sustainable certification. Biodiversity and carbon stocks were found to be more associated with smallholder vs. large-scale farms than with certification per se, but reduced use of agrochemicals and good management of water sources was strongly associated with certification. Economic performance of farmers with different certifications varied, C.A.F.E. Practice and Rainforest Alliance certified farmers had higher incomes but also higher levels of investment than conventional farmers, while organic farmers had a similar level of income to conventional producers but achieved this with a lower level of investment. Producer organizations require substantial external financial and technical support to access these certifications, which may place limitations on the spread of the benefits from sustainable certification to a majority of producers.

• (Article) Complying with the private trade standards required to export fresh produce to Europe: Challenges for smallholder farmers

  01.05.2012
  Being able to access European fresh food markets brings benefits to African farmers and helps the economy generally, but consumers and retail buyers require proof that the food is safe and has been grown in a way that neither harms the environment nor causes ethical issues during production. Private standards furnish this proof, but in order to comply with a private standard, growers often need to adapt their production practices quite significantly, and this can be a particular challenge for small-scale farmers. Examples are given of how compliance can be achieved and ways are described of bringing together representatives from different African countries, to help to address these market requirements. The focus of the article is the most commonly used private standard, GLOBALGAP, for which costs and benefits of compliance are discussed, based on the authors' own experiences in Africa.

• (Article) Measuring the moisture content of foods

  01.11.2011
  

• (Article) Low-oxygen storage of dried foods

  01.11.2011
  Insects, humidity, and high temperatures cause enormous wastage to most agricultural produce. This article reports on a process that does not rely on chemicals to prevent infestation and spoilage of food but instead uses a low-oxygen atmosphere to kill insects and a vacuum to prevent further spoilage.

• (Article) Waste in the food value chain: Issues and opportunities in sub-Saharan Africa

  01.11.2011
  Waste in the processed food sector has recently been brought to the fore as a critical factor as the world looks forward to the demands of a growing population and the threat of climate change. The fact that we only consume about a half of what we produce identifies an opportunity for saving and demands more attention. Waste is discussed in seven stages of a food value chain, with a focus on the differences between the losses in the developed and developing worlds. This reveals that first of all there is a growing blurring of the difference between the developed and developing world, as consumers grow richer and industrialization develops. This is less evident in sub-Saharan Africa than in, for example, the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and China). In wealthier countries wastage tends to be concentrated in the consumption areas while in the poorer countries more wastage arises in the production end of the food chain. The paper argues that food processors and food scientists in sub-Saharan Africa have the advantage of being able to learn what has and is happening in the developed world environment and therefore being able to address issues efficiently that will benefit both the community and their businesses.

• (Article) Women entrepreneurship development in Tanzania: Focus on food processing

  01.11.2011
  Tanzania is heavily dependent on agriculture, but agro-processing for value added is limited. To improve this situation, the Women Entrepreneurship Development programme (WED) was started in 2001, and is now part of the Small Industries Development Organization. WED provides support services to micro- and small-scale entrepreneurs: they facilitate trainees and other entrepreneurs in the sector to start, develop, and sustain their food-processing businesses. In particular, WED has assisted with the packaging needs of microenterprises, to enhance the quality of products.

• (Article) The dasheen itch factor and approaches to reducing its effect

  01.11.2011
  The ‘dasheen’ form of taro is a staple food grown in tropical regions all over the world. Although it is nutritionally superior to potato in a number of ways, it contains high levels of oxalates which cause itching when dasheen is handled, and can be dangerous when consumed. This article describes the treatments and options for processing dasheen which can reduce the oxalate levels and result in a variety of safe food products.

• (Article) Supermarkets and urban value chains: rethinking the developmental mandate

  01.11.2011
  One of the most pressing research concerns in food studies is understanding how urban value chains work and making recommendations for how they could work better, with the broader aim of linking farmers to markets and making food more accessible for the urban poor. This paper aims to broaden out the idea of urban value chains beyond the vision of the supermarket as the ultimate benefactor of profitable chain linkages, as it has been cast in the development literature. I also argue, with evidence from Lusaka, Zambia that development practitioners need to broaden the focus on linking small-scale farmers to markets beyond the overly optimistic vision of supermarkets. Overlooking urban markets disregards almost 90 per cent of urban food trade in African cities through these markets. It is precisely these modes of retail that connect small-scale farmers to markets and enable accessible food provisioning for urban residents. The paper concludes with a few salient interventions for development policy research.

• (Article) Who will feed the world? The production challenge

  01.11.2011
  This article focuses on the production challenge contained within the ambitious question of ‘Who will feed the world?’ By looking at the different players in developing countries’ agricultural systems: small-scale and large-scale producers and systems of production — LEI, low external input agriculture and HEI, high external input’ agriculture — it aims at exploring how to achieve sustainable agricultural growth, allowing for: food security, poverty reduction, and environmental protection. The article argues that debates which polarize small-scale versus large-scale models, or LEI versus HEI, have obscured the potential of building on complementarities. Drawing from case studies and a review of the current literature, the article calls for a four-pronged approach: supporting subsistence farmers; empowering small investor farmers; making large investments pro-poor; and building on complementarities between large and small farms. A variety of institutional arrangements could be used to combine the assets related to large-scale farms — capital, technology, and markets — with those of small-holder producers — land, labour, and local knowledge — to build sustainable food value chains.