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• (Article) Processing and quality attributes of gowe: a malted and fermented cereal-based beverage from Benin

  01.06.2014
  Gowe is a sweetish paste of malted, fermented, and cooked sorghum and/or maize flour, consumed in its pure state, but preferentially as a beverage after homogenizing with water, sugar, milk, and ice. A survey was carried out at different localities in the traditional gowe producing areas to investigate the diversity of the processing techniques, consumers’ characteristics, and the quality attributes. Producers and sellers were women exclusively while consumers cut across all classes of age, socio-cultural groups, and educational levels. Gowe varied in cereal and processing techniques, with maize and sorghum being used either singly or in combination (maize/sorghum ratio varying from 1 to 3) through four processes. Apart from the alternative process which leaves out the malting step, gowe processing techniques aim at producing sweetish and acidic tasting products through malting, saccharification, and fermentation. A principal component analysis plot of quality criteria of gowe indicated that the preference of consumers was directly associated with the perceptions of producers.

• (Article) Impact measurement for companies sourcing from smallholder farmers in their value chains

  01.06.2014
  Just as no company would launch a new product or make a major investment without considering how to assess its effectiveness, no company should consider working with smallholder farmers without considering how to measure and monitor the financial and social performance of this activity. Most companies working with smallholder farmers do gather some information, but this information often lacks a clear focus. While these stories can help personalize the impact of a strategy, they are not sufficient to improve a company's performance or communicate to discerning external stakeholders. To demonstrate true poverty impact and returns on resources committed, companies need to measure their activities in a systematic way. Facing this gap, a number of companies have experimented with their own approaches to assessing poverty impact, and organizations have proposed a variety of different measurement and monitoring frameworks specifically designed with companies in mind. This paper gives an overview of the business value that can be created from measuring poverty impact in an agricultural value chain initiative and points to some tools, indicators, and lessons learned for how companies can go about maximizing the business and social impact of their work with smallholder farmers.

• (Article) The future of smallholders in Latin America: land, food, livelihoods, and the growth of monoculture

  01.06.2014
  Greater investment in agriculture is needed to reduce rural poverty and improve food security; but how investment is made, its context and conditions, is at least as important as how much is invested. This paper presents three case studies of large-scale agricultural investment in Paraguay, Guatemala, and Colombia and shows how monoculture expansion is displacing communities, undermining smallholder livelihoods, and worsening local food security. In some cases displacement is a direct result, when companies acquire land from smallholders. In others it is indirect, when smallholders next to plantations are unable to coexist with the health and environmental problems caused by the intensive use of agrochemicals. Cases also showed how large-scale monoculture expansion is competing for land with small-scale basic food production; thus, households which used to be self-sufficient in food now rely on local markets. Even when companies claim to operate responsibly, their business model determines who bears the risks, who has access to capital, and where market power lies. Responsibility should mean benefits and costs are fairly distributed and all rights upheld, including land rights. Private agricultural investment is needed, but it should complement rather than undermine smallholders, who are the main investors in agriculture.

• (Article) Nutrient composition of insects and their potential application in food and feed in Europe

  01.06.2014
  With the increasing demand for alternative protein sources for food and feed due to a growing global population and changing food habits, insects and insect proteins have attracted attention in Europe as a hitherto unexploited alternative animal protein source for food and feed. The nutrient compositions, amino acid spectra, and mineral compositions of the three exemplary insect species Acheta domesticus (adult house crickets), Tenebrio molitor (mealworm larvae), and Hermetia illucens (black soldier fly larvae) are compared with the two conventional feed components soy bean meal and fish meal as well as with the human amino acid requirement, and the potential and suitability of edible insects as food and feed is discussed.

• (Article) Insect products for high-value Western markets

  01.06.2014
  Despite widespread resistance to eating insects in Western countries, there has been a recent resurgence of interest in entomophagy and the sale of insects. This paper outlines some of the insect-based dishes being developed by restaurants in Europe and the sale of high-value insects as snack foods, novelty foods or gifts in Western markets. With continuing uptake of internet access, it is now possible for small-scale insect processors worldwide to gain direct access to retail buyers and consumers in the high-value markets of industrialized countries.

• (Article) Insects in the human food chain: global status and opportunities

  01.06.2014
  Insects are part of the traditional diets of approximately 2 billion people worldwide. Insects can contribute to food security and be a part of the solution to protein shortages, given their high nutritional value, low emissions of greenhouse gases, low requirements for land and water, and the high efficiency at which they can convert feed into food. This article outlines the potential of insects as a food for humans as well as a feedstock for animals and fish. The majority of insects consumed in developing countries today are harvested in nature from wild populations. In Western countries, the disgust factor in considering insects as food, combined currently with their limited availability on the market, and a lack of regulations governing insects as food and feed, are major barriers for their further expansion. However, the biggest opportunity may well lie in the production of insect biomass as feedstock for animals and fish, to partly replace the increasingly expensive protein ingredients of compound feeds in the livestock industries. Considering the immense quantities of insect biomass needed to replace current protein-rich ingredients such as meal from fish and soybeans, automated mass rearing facilities need to be developed. For this to occur, significant technological innovations, changes in consumer food preferences, insect-encompassing food and feed legislation, and progress towards more sustainable food production systems are needed. The close collaboration of government, food and feed industry, media, chefs, and academia will be essential for success.

• (Article) Why ‘place’ matters in the development and impacts of Fairtrade production

  01.02.2014
  This paper examines the importance of place for the cultural and environmental dynamics shaping Fairtrade cooperatives. It draws on a case study of the Eksteenskuil Agricultural Cooperative (EAC) in South Africa's Northern Cape, which supplies Fairtrade raisins to Traidcraft plc, one of the UK's leading Fairtrade organizations. It examines how the histories and geographies of place continually challenge and redefine the meaning and effectiveness of Fairtrade. It concludes with a number of recommendations for both Fairtrade organizations in general and EAC/Traidcraft specifically.

• (Article) Enhancing Fairtrade for women workers on plantations: insights from Kenyan agriculture

  01.02.2014
  The growth in the market for Fairtrade certified agricultural exports from Africa has been rapid, promising empowerment for workers and communities through the Fairtrade Premium. Increasingly the Joint Bodies that administer the premium and the kinds of projects funded have been the subject of mounting criticism. Drawing from two empirical studies on Kenyan flowers and tea that explored pathways to empowerment for women workers on plantations, this paper compares and contrasts the practices of two standards mechanisms operating on the farms: the Joint Body (JB) and the Gender Committee (GC). This analysis finds that the GCs were more empowering for women workers than the JBs and draws out examples of good practice from the former that could help to improve practice in Fairtrade in plantation agriculture. The paper argues that appropriate training for members and non-members of committees alike, organizational and spatial structures, the nature of representation, and mechanisms for strengthening voice are of great importance in ensuring empowering outcomes for workers.

• (Article) Access to the Fairtrade system: the geography of certification for social justice

  01.02.2014
  A growing body of research and analysis identifies that fair trade practices create opportunities for developing world producers in a manner best described as providing ‘shaped advantage’, as access to Northern markets is reconfigured to operate under preferable conditions for some producers, but is not necessarily universally expanded and improved. From this point of view, impact potential is first and foremost delineated through the conditions of access to fair trade supply networks. In order to unpack this perspective, the article analyses barriers to entry embedded in the most significant avenue through which producers become involved in fair trade: certification by Fairtrade International. Here it is found that in addition to arguably justifiable restrictions on participation, structured around producer capacity to viably engage in trade, more arbitrary geographical restrictions embedded in the Fairtrade system are also an ongoing and significant barrier to widening impact. This article illustrates the reality of these technical limitations by presenting the mixed experiences of the National Smallholder Farmers' Association of Malawi, and their efforts to use Fairtrade certification as a market development tool.

• (Article) Partnerships in Fairtrade coffee: a close-up look at how buyers and NGOs build supply capacity in Nicaragua

  01.02.2014
  This paper examines efforts by buyers and NGOs to build the supply of Fairtrade coffee from the Nicaragua-based cooperative Soppexcca following the coffee crisis. Support was aimed at transforming Soppexcca into a viable business, able to respond to the needs of its coffee-farming members. Results show that Soppexcca made significant gains, including expansion of infrastructure, growth in membership, and increased financial stability. However, important issues remained, related to democratic governance, future growth and stability, and the provision of services. Results suggest that advances in building cooperatives do not easily translate into increased capacities at the household level. While some important gains were detected, in general, producers struggled to intensify coffee production and take full advantage of their access to preferential markets. This paper makes a plea for deeper discussions about how buyers and NGOs can more effectively contribute to building the supply of high-quality Fairtrade coffee, and the need for increased coordination and mutual learning as part of the process.

• (Article) Exploring issues of rigour and utility in Fairtrade impact assessment

  01.02.2014
  This article explores the evolution of Fairtrade impact assessment, which reflects the wider context of international development evaluation practice and debates. Appropriate designs and methods in evaluation are hotly contested, ultimately reflecting different development philosophies and values. Earlier Fairtrade impact studies were primarily case studies involving qualitative methods. As Fairtrade has grown and scrutiny from different stakeholders has increased, there has been increased demand for more rigour and criticism of studies that do not include a ‘credible’ counterfactual. More recently, there have been increasing numbers of impact evaluation studies using mixed designs as well as mixed methods. But challenges remain as to how to balance utility and rigour in Fairtrade impact assessment, because there are trade-offs in terms of skill and resource requirements and in relation to ethical issues. Yet all sustainability standards are being asked to both demonstrate impact and to inform impact. Achieving utility not only at higher levels of organizations in Fairtrade, but also for producers at the local level is a significant challenge, when ‘credibility’ in impact assessment is judged in some quarters as being the same as using counterfactual logics. In many cases the construction of a counterfactual is very difficult if not impossible. In this paper we seek to provide some practical suggestions for improving both rigour and utility.

• (Article) Contract farming for biofuels: a literature review

  01.10.2013
  An apparent contributory factor to the upward trend in food prices in recent years has been the rapid explosion in biofuel production in some countries, which has usually occurred as a result of government blending mandates and subsidies. Lacking suitable land in developing countries for large-scale operations, companies seeking supplies of appropriate feedstock have often turned to contract farming as a way of securing supplies. This article reviews the available literature covering this topic, noting that significant difficulties have been experienced with biofuel contract farming operations, with few, if any, real successes. These problems are attributed to a lack of understanding on the part of the companies of the capacities of smallholders, the general lack of experience of biofuel companies with contract farming including suitable price-setting methods, the impact of biofuel production on farmers’ food production, and, finally, the lack of appropriate policies. The enthusiasm for subsidizing the sector has contributed to the difficulties. The paper concludes that there is a need to re-examine the costs and benefits of subsidies and their impact on successful commercial operations involving small farmers. Further, companies need to take lessons from experiences with more traditional contract farming operations.

• (Article) Two islands - two outcomes: food, fruit, and fuel in multi-contractual farming supported by the tobacco industry

  01.10.2013
  The contract farming of seasonal crops raises the question of how farmers can be supported when they are not producing the contracted crop. Farmer incomes and relationships between company and farmers can be enhanced if the company can provide additional incomeearning opportunities. This approach is particularly pertinent in those developing countries where management, technical, and marketing linkages are weak. In addition, many farming communities have little access to short-term finance to fund their cropping cycle, apart from sometimes avaricious money lenders. The specific focus of this study is to introduce the recent experiences of five multi-contractual projects sponsored by two tobacco organizations: PT Sadhana Arifnusa Corporation (Sadhana) in Indonesia and the Southern Development Company (SDC) in Fiji. As tobacco is a six-month crop, both companies considered that broadening their cropping base during the ‘off season’ would provide additional income for their farmers. It would also offer additional employment to seasonal workers who are employed only during the delivery, processing, packing, and storage of crops. The outcomes of this paper can act as a template for a detailed analysis that can determine the successes and constraints of multi-cropping under contract, and the promotion of farmer-company relations, including how they can restrict side-selling, a major constraint of contract farming.

• (Article) Smallholder attrition in contract farming schemes in India: extent, causes, and concerns

  01.10.2013
  This paper maps the extent and causes of farmer exit from contract farming arrangements in southern India using survey data for five schemes: cotton, gherkins, papaya, marigold, and broiler chickens. The paper finds that farmer attrition is quite widespread and that poorer farmers from marginalized social groups are more likely to exit these arrangements. While this is an important policy concern, the study also distinguishes between voluntary exit, where the farmer opts out, versus involuntary exit, where the contracting firm drops the farmer as a supplier because of constraints in delivering quality produce, or the firm's interaction with the farmer forces the farmer out. The paper also highlights the episodic nature of farmer participation, wherein farmers leverage opportunities to contract occasionally as part of a dynamic portfolio of alternatives. The paper emphasizes that while involuntary exclusion is of serious concern, voluntary exit and episodic participation are perhaps less important issues from a policy perspective.

• (Article) The White Revolution and reordering of relations among the pastoralists of Gujarat: a case for pastoralist policies

  01.02.2013
  This paper introduces India's dairy policy before analysing some of the implications of this policy for the pastoralists of Gujarat State, illustrating the need for pastoralist-appropriate policies. The paper argues that on the basis of mounting ecological and economic data, dairy policy in India needs to consider pastoralist management systems and livelihoods and develop appropriate policies and programmes to support them. While the programmes have created important opportunities for increased earning potential for pastoralists, they have also led to negative consequences for food security, traditional livelihoods, and livestock diversity. A recognizable neo-liberal turn in Indian dairy policy will most likely amplify the negative impacts of the previous programme and potentially compromise existing best practices. The paper concludes with policy recommendations and a call to ground future policy processes with the normative and analytical right to adequate food framework.

• (Article) Biofortification: lessons from the Golden Rice project

  01.02.2013
  Biofortification is an umbrella term for a diverse range of projects and possibilities. It is best understood on three levels: as a range of technologies for developing micronutrient-dense crops; a development intervention to improve public health; and an idea that links agriculture, nutrition, and health in a particular way. This paper focuses on the Golden Rice project as a well-known example of biofortification. It show how two sets of questions – concerning effectiveness of Golden Rice as a delivery mechanism for vitamin A to malnourished populations and its acceptance by those populations as a rice variety and staple food item – have been narrowed down to parameters set by an increasingly polarized GM crop debate. It is not too late for these trends to be reversed, however. The Golden Rice project is a case study in the non-linearity of complex innovation processes, which exposes limitations of binaries such as ‘upstream’ and ‘downstream’. Recent developments point to the possibility of a more open debate about outstanding uncertainties and how they might be resolved.

• (Article) Value-chain analysis of sun-dried mukene in Uganda

  01.02.2013
  Marketing of mukene (Rastrineobola argentea), a freshwater lake sardine, has become a lucrative business in Uganda after decades of underutilization. However, little was known about its value chain which prompted a 20-day study at two selected landing sites on Lake Victoria in Uganda and several fish markets in Kampala. About 200 fisher-folk were interviewed to identify key stakeholders, linkages, and economic variables along the mukene value chain. Results indicated that 70 per cent of dried mukene was marketed for human consumption and 30 per cent for animal feed production. Boat owners incurred the highest inputs and local traders incurred the lowest. Although fisher-folk and processors influenced mukene quality, their profit margins were only 10 per cent and 12 per cent, respectively, compared with boat owners/traders' profits of 90 per cent and 48 per cent for human consumption and animal feed, respectively. These key players along the mukene value chain played indispensable roles regardless of their profit margins.

• (Article) Using ICT for fish marketing: the EFMIS model in Kenya

  01.02.2013
  Small-scale fisheries in developing countries often perform sub-optimally owing to lack of vital market information, leading to inefficiencies, inequity, and post-harvest losses. The mobile phone, which is the fastest growing communications media in Africa, may be most suited for addressing market information gaps. The Enhanced Fish Market Information Service (EFMIS), an ICT pilot project based on mobile phones, has been implemented in Kenya's Lake Victoria fisheries for 3 years. The objective of the project is to enhance fish trade and incomes for the fisher community through improved access to market information. Through the system, data from fish landing sites and inland urban markets is continuously relayed to a central database where it is appropriately packaged into a format that users can access in real time by sending a query through mobile phone SMS. The system is automated and responds within 10 seconds. Market information is also disseminated through monthly electronic bulletins. The EFMIS model offers the potential to be adapted for application in other small-scale fisheries, drawing lessons learnt from this pilot.

• (Article) Climate change and livelihoods: perspectives from small-scale fishing communities in India

  01.02.2013
  This summary paper presents the outputs from a study undertaken by the author for the International Collective in Support of Fishworkers (ICSF) to highlight the perspectives of selected marine fishing communities in India on climate change and its implications on their lives and livelihoods. The paper highlights the weakening livelihood context in marine fisheries and how this has a direct bearing on the causes and consequences of climate change as well as on the capacity of the fishers to undertake appropriate adoptive/mitigating strategies. It summarizes the factors of climate change and variability that have a relevance to the marine fishers, their causes and consequences, and the strategies adopted by the fishers to deal with them. It emphasizes the importance of community-based consultative processes to develop and implement climate change adaptation and mitigation measures, and suggests some measures to improve the current policy and institutional responses to cope with climate change.

• (Article) The global fisheries crisis: dispelling myths and misconceptions, and fishing for solutions

  01.02.2013
  Many authors have highlighted the crisis facing world fisheries and the threat this implies for the world economy, food supplies, and livelihoods. Several authors have diagnosed the problems (often simplified as ‘too many boats chasing too few fish’) and prescribed remedies (reducing the number of vessels or ‘fishing capacity’). In general both the diagnoses made and remedies prescribed emphasize the need to address environmental problems (over fishing, resource depletion, habitat destruction, etc.) using technical managerial approaches (rights-based management, Marine Protected Areas, etc.). These are often based on partial data, myths, and misconceptions. They also fail to address the human dimensions of fisheries, especially the human rights of communities whose livelihoods and food security depend on accessing living aquatic resources. The Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication being developed by the FAO, along with related measures that link the promotion of best practices (for responsible fisheries), including ‘scale subsidiarity’, to the social development of fishing communities, would go a long way to resolving the global fisheries crisis while alleviating poverty and promoting sustainable development.