Nutrient composition of insects and their potential application in food and feed in Europe
With the increasing demand for alternative protein sources for food and feed due to a growing global population and changing food habits, insects and insect proteins have attracted attention in Europe as a hitherto unexploited alternative animal protein source for food and feed. The nutrient compositions, amino acid spectra, and mineral compositions of the three exemplary insect species Acheta domesticus (adult house crickets), Tenebrio molitor (mealworm larvae), and Hermetia illucens (black soldier fly larvae) are compared with the two conventional feed components soy bean meal and fish meal as well as with the human amino acid requirement, and the potential and suitability of edible insects as food and feed is discussed.Alegbeleye, W.O., Obasa, S.O., Olude, O.O., Otubu, K. and Jimoh, W. (2012) ‘Preliminary evaluation of the nutritive value of the variegated grasshopper (Zonocerus variegatus L.) for African catfish Clarias gariepinus (Burchell. 1822) fingerlings’, Aquaculture Research 43: 412-20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2011.02844.x≯.
Anand, H., Ganguly, A. and Haldar, P. (2008) ‘Potential value of Acridids as high protein supplement for poultry feed’, International Journal of Poultry Science 7: 722-5.
Barroso, F.G., De Haro, C., Sanchez-Muros, M.-J., Venegas, E., Martinez-Sanchez, A. and Perez-Banon, C. (2014) ‘The potential of various insect species for use as food for fish’, Aquaculture 422: 193-201 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2013.12.024≯.
Bondari, K. and Sheppard, D.C. (1981) ‘Soldier fly larvae as feed in commercial fish production’, Aquaculture 24: 103-9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0044-8486(81)90047-8≯.
Bondari, K. and Sheppard, D.C. (1987) ‘Soldier fly Hermetia illucens L. larvae as feed for channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus rafinesque and blue tilapia Oreochromis aureus steindachner’, Aquaculture and Fisheries Management 18: 209-20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.1987.tb00141.x≯.
Bundesministerium für Ernährung Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (BMELV) (2012) Pflanzeneiweißstrategie des BMELV, Berlin: BMELV.
Finke, M.D. (2002) ‘Complete nutrient composition of commercially raised invertebrates used as food for insectivores’, Zoo Biology 21: 269-85 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/zoo.10031≯.
Finke, M.D. (2013) ‘Complete nutrient content of four species of feeder insects’, Zoo Biology 32: 27-36 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21012≯.
Finke, M.D., Defoliart, G. and Benevenga, N.J. (1989) ‘Use of a four-parameter logistic model to evaluate the quality of the protein from three insect species when fed to rats’, Journal of Nutrition 119: 864-71.
Globefish (2014) ‘Fishmeal: March 2014’ [website] <http://www.globefish.org/fishmealmarch-2014.html≯ [accessed 23 June 2014]. http://www.globefish.org/fishmealmarch-2014.html
Hwangbo, J., Hong, E.C., Jang, A., Kang, H.K., Oh, J.S., Kim, B.W. and Park, B.S. (2009) ‘Utilization of house fly-maggots, a feed supplement in the production of broiler chickens’, Journal of Environmental Biology 30: 609-14.
Ijaiya, A.T. and Eko, E.O. (2009) ‘Effect of replacing dietary fish meal with silkworm (Anaphe infracta) caterpillar meal on growth, digestibility and economics of production of starter broiler chickens’, Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 8: 845-9.
Kroeckel, S., Harjes, A.G.E., Roth, I., Katz, H., Wuertz, S., Susenbeth, A. and Schulz, C. (2012) ‘When a turbot catches a fly: evaluation of a pre-pupae meal of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) as fish meal substitute: growth performance and chitin degradation in juvenile turbot (Psetta maxima)’, Aquaculture 364: 345-52 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2012.08.041≯.
Codex Alimentarius Commission (2010) ‘Agenda item 13: comments of Lao PDR: proposal for the new work and development of regional standard for edible crickets and their products (CRD 8)’, 17th Session of the FAO/WHO Coordinating Committee for Asia (CCASIA), Bali, Indonesia.
Naylor, R.L., Goldburg, R.J., Primavera, J.H., Kautsky, N., Beveridge, M.C.M., Clay, J., Folke, C., Lubchenco, J., Mooney, H. and Troell, M. (2000) ‘Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies’, Nature 405: 1017-24 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/35016500≯.
Oliveira-Goumas, B. (2004) European parliament directorate general for research working paper: the fish meal and fish oil industry its role in the common fisheries policy (FISH 113 EN), Luxemburg patent application.
Oonincx, D.G.A.B., Van Itterbeeck, J., Heetkamp, M.J.W., Van den Brand, H., Van Loon, J.J.A. and Van Huis, A. (2010) ‘An exploration on greenhouse gas and ammonia production by insect species suitable for animal or human consumption’, Plos One 5(12): e14445 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0014445≯.
Oyegoke, O.O., Akintola, A.J. and Fasoranti, J.O. (2006) ‘Dietary potentials of the edible larvae of Cirina forda (westwood) as a poultry feed’, African Journal of Biotechnology 5: 1799-1802.
Ramos-Elorduy, J., Pino-M, J.M. and Correa, S.C. (1998) ‘Edible insects of the state of Mexico and determination of their nutritive values’, Anales del Instituto de Biologia Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico Serie Zoologia 69: 65-104.
Ramos-Elorduy, J., Gonzalez, E.A., Hernandez, A.R. and Pino, J.M. (2002) ‘Use of Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) to recycle organic wastes and as feed for broiler chickens’, Journal of Economic Entomology 95: 214-20 <http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1603/0022-0493-95.1.214≯.
Rumpold, B.A. and Schlüter, O.K. (2013a) ‘Nutritional composition and safety aspects of edible insects’, Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 57: 802-23 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201200735≯.
Rumpold, B.A. and Schlüter, O.K. (2013b) ‘Potential and challenges of insects as an innovative source for food and feed production’, Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 17: 1-11 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2012.11.005≯.
Sealey, W.M., Gaylord, T.G., Barrows, F.T., Tomberlin, J.K., McGuire, M.A., Ross, C. and St. Hilaire, S. (2011) ‘Sensory analysis of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, fed enriched black soldier fly prepupae, Hermetia illucens’, Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 42: 34-45 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2010.00441.x≯.
St Hilaire, S., Cranfill, K., McGuire, M.A., Mosley, E.E., Tomberlin, J.K., Newton, L., Sealey, W., Sheppard, C. and Irving, S. (2007a) ‘Fish offal recycling by the black soldier fly produces a foodstuff high in omega-3 fatty acids’, Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 38: 309-13 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2007.00101.x≯.
St Hilaire, S., Sheppard, C., Tomberlin, J.K., Irving, S., Newton, L., McGuire, M.A., Mosley, E.E., Hardy, R.W. and Sealey, W. (2007b) ‘Fly prepupae as a feedstuff for rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss’, Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 38: 59-67 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2006.00073.x≯.
Stamer, A., Wesselss, S., Neidigk, R. and Hoerstgen-Schwark, G. (2014) ‘Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae-meal as an example for a new feed ingredient's class in aquaculture diets’, in G. Rahmann and U. Aksoy (eds.), 4th ISOFAR Scientific Conference ‘Building Organic Bridges’, at the Organic World Conference, Istanbul, Turkey.
Starke, I.C., Pieper, R., Neumann, K., Zentek, J. and Vahjen, W. (2014) ‘The impact of high dietary zinc oxide on the development of the intestinal microbiota in weaned piglets’, FEMS Microbiology Ecology 87: 416-27 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1574-6941.12233≯.
Sun, T., Liu, Z.Y., Qin, L.P. and Long, R.J. (2012) ‘Meat fatty acid and cholesterol level of free-range broilers fed on grasshoppers on alpine rangeland in the Tibetan Plateau’, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 92: 2239-43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.5609≯.
The Fish Site (2008) ‘Opportunities to meet the rising demand in global aquaculture’ [website] <www.thefishsite.com/articles/537/opportunities-to-meet-the-rising-demand-in-globalaquaculture≯ [accessed 12 June 2014]. www.thefishsite.com/articles/537/opportunities-to-meet-the-rising-demand-in-globalaquaculture
Van Huis, A., Van Itterbeeck, J., Klunder, H.C., Mertens, E., Halloran, A., Muir, G. and Vantomme, P. (2013) Edible Insects: Future Prospects for Food and Feed Security, Rome: FAO.
Verhoeckx, K.C.M., Van Broekhoven, S., Den Hartog-Jager, C.F., Gaspari, M., De Jong, G.A.H., Wichers, H.J., Van Hoffen, E., Houben, G.F. and Knulst, A.C. (2014) ‘House dust mite (Der p 10) and crustacean allergic patients may react to food containing yellow mealworm proteins’, Food and Chemical Toxicology 65: 364-73 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2013.12.049≯.
Wang, D., Zhai, S.W., Zhang, C.X., Bai, Y.Y., An, S.H. and Xu, Y.N. (2005) ‘Evaluation on nutritional value of field crickets as a poultry feedstuff’, Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences 18: 667-70.
WHO (2007) Protein and Amino Acid Requirements in Human Nutrition: Report of a Joint FAO/ WHO/UNU Expert Consultation, WHO Technical Report Series, Geneva: WHO.
Alegbeleye, W.O., Obasa, S.O., Olude, O.O., Otubu, K. and Jimoh, W. (2012) ‘Preliminary evaluation of the nutritive value of the variegated grasshopper (Zonocerus variegatus L.) for African catfish Clarias gariepinus (Burchell. 1822) fingerlings’, Aquaculture Research 43: 412-20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2011.02844.x≯.
Anand, H., Ganguly, A. and Haldar, P. (2008) ‘Potential value of Acridids as high protein supplement for poultry feed’, International Journal of Poultry Science 7: 722-5.
Barroso, F.G., De Haro, C., Sanchez-Muros, M.-J., Venegas, E., Martinez-Sanchez, A. and Perez-Banon, C. (2014) ‘The potential of various insect species for use as food for fish’, Aquaculture 422: 193-201 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2013.12.024≯.
Bondari, K. and Sheppard, D.C. (1981) ‘Soldier fly larvae as feed in commercial fish production’, Aquaculture 24: 103-9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0044-8486(81)90047-8≯.
Bondari, K. and Sheppard, D.C. (1987) ‘Soldier fly Hermetia illucens L. larvae as feed for channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus rafinesque and blue tilapia Oreochromis aureus steindachner’, Aquaculture and Fisheries Management 18: 209-20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.1987.tb00141.x≯.
Bundesministerium für Ernährung Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (BMELV) (2012) Pflanzeneiweißstrategie des BMELV, Berlin: BMELV.
Finke, M.D. (2002) ‘Complete nutrient composition of commercially raised invertebrates used as food for insectivores’, Zoo Biology 21: 269-85 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/zoo.10031≯.
Finke, M.D. (2013) ‘Complete nutrient content of four species of feeder insects’, Zoo Biology 32: 27-36 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21012≯.
Finke, M.D., Defoliart, G. and Benevenga, N.J. (1989) ‘Use of a four-parameter logistic model to evaluate the quality of the protein from three insect species when fed to rats’, Journal of Nutrition 119: 864-71.
Globefish (2014) ‘Fishmeal: March 2014’ [website] <http://www.globefish.org/fishmealmarch-2014.html≯ [accessed 23 June 2014]. http://www.globefish.org/fishmealmarch-2014.html
Hwangbo, J., Hong, E.C., Jang, A., Kang, H.K., Oh, J.S., Kim, B.W. and Park, B.S. (2009) ‘Utilization of house fly-maggots, a feed supplement in the production of broiler chickens’, Journal of Environmental Biology 30: 609-14.
Ijaiya, A.T. and Eko, E.O. (2009) ‘Effect of replacing dietary fish meal with silkworm (Anaphe infracta) caterpillar meal on growth, digestibility and economics of production of starter broiler chickens’, Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 8: 845-9.
Kroeckel, S., Harjes, A.G.E., Roth, I., Katz, H., Wuertz, S., Susenbeth, A. and Schulz, C. (2012) ‘When a turbot catches a fly: evaluation of a pre-pupae meal of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) as fish meal substitute: growth performance and chitin degradation in juvenile turbot (Psetta maxima)’, Aquaculture 364: 345-52 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2012.08.041≯.
Codex Alimentarius Commission (2010) ‘Agenda item 13: comments of Lao PDR: proposal for the new work and development of regional standard for edible crickets and their products (CRD 8)’, 17th Session of the FAO/WHO Coordinating Committee for Asia (CCASIA), Bali, Indonesia.
Naylor, R.L., Goldburg, R.J., Primavera, J.H., Kautsky, N., Beveridge, M.C.M., Clay, J., Folke, C., Lubchenco, J., Mooney, H. and Troell, M. (2000) ‘Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies’, Nature 405: 1017-24 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/35016500≯.
Oliveira-Goumas, B. (2004) European parliament directorate general for research working paper: the fish meal and fish oil industry its role in the common fisheries policy (FISH 113 EN), Luxemburg patent application.
Oonincx, D.G.A.B., Van Itterbeeck, J., Heetkamp, M.J.W., Van den Brand, H., Van Loon, J.J.A. and Van Huis, A. (2010) ‘An exploration on greenhouse gas and ammonia production by insect species suitable for animal or human consumption’, Plos One 5(12): e14445 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0014445≯.
Oyegoke, O.O., Akintola, A.J. and Fasoranti, J.O. (2006) ‘Dietary potentials of the edible larvae of Cirina forda (westwood) as a poultry feed’, African Journal of Biotechnology 5: 1799-1802.
Ramos-Elorduy, J., Pino-M, J.M. and Correa, S.C. (1998) ‘Edible insects of the state of Mexico and determination of their nutritive values’, Anales del Instituto de Biologia Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico Serie Zoologia 69: 65-104.
Ramos-Elorduy, J., Gonzalez, E.A., Hernandez, A.R. and Pino, J.M. (2002) ‘Use of Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) to recycle organic wastes and as feed for broiler chickens’, Journal of Economic Entomology 95: 214-20 <http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1603/0022-0493-95.1.214≯.
Rumpold, B.A. and Schlüter, O.K. (2013a) ‘Nutritional composition and safety aspects of edible insects’, Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 57: 802-23 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201200735≯.
Rumpold, B.A. and Schlüter, O.K. (2013b) ‘Potential and challenges of insects as an innovative source for food and feed production’, Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 17: 1-11 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2012.11.005≯.
Sealey, W.M., Gaylord, T.G., Barrows, F.T., Tomberlin, J.K., McGuire, M.A., Ross, C. and St. Hilaire, S. (2011) ‘Sensory analysis of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, fed enriched black soldier fly prepupae, Hermetia illucens’, Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 42: 34-45 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2010.00441.x≯.
St Hilaire, S., Cranfill, K., McGuire, M.A., Mosley, E.E., Tomberlin, J.K., Newton, L., Sealey, W., Sheppard, C. and Irving, S. (2007a) ‘Fish offal recycling by the black soldier fly produces a foodstuff high in omega-3 fatty acids’, Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 38: 309-13 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2007.00101.x≯.
St Hilaire, S., Sheppard, C., Tomberlin, J.K., Irving, S., Newton, L., McGuire, M.A., Mosley, E.E., Hardy, R.W. and Sealey, W. (2007b) ‘Fly prepupae as a feedstuff for rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss’, Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 38: 59-67 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2006.00073.x≯.
Stamer, A., Wesselss, S., Neidigk, R. and Hoerstgen-Schwark, G. (2014) ‘Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae-meal as an example for a new feed ingredient's class in aquaculture diets’, in G. Rahmann and U. Aksoy (eds.), 4th ISOFAR Scientific Conference ‘Building Organic Bridges’, at the Organic World Conference, Istanbul, Turkey.
Starke, I.C., Pieper, R., Neumann, K., Zentek, J. and Vahjen, W. (2014) ‘The impact of high dietary zinc oxide on the development of the intestinal microbiota in weaned piglets’, FEMS Microbiology Ecology 87: 416-27 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1574-6941.12233≯.
Sun, T., Liu, Z.Y., Qin, L.P. and Long, R.J. (2012) ‘Meat fatty acid and cholesterol level of free-range broilers fed on grasshoppers on alpine rangeland in the Tibetan Plateau’, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 92: 2239-43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.5609≯.
The Fish Site (2008) ‘Opportunities to meet the rising demand in global aquaculture’ [website] <www.thefishsite.com/articles/537/opportunities-to-meet-the-rising-demand-in-globalaquaculture≯ [accessed 12 June 2014]. www.thefishsite.com/articles/537/opportunities-to-meet-the-rising-demand-in-globalaquaculture
Van Huis, A., Van Itterbeeck, J., Klunder, H.C., Mertens, E., Halloran, A., Muir, G. and Vantomme, P. (2013) Edible Insects: Future Prospects for Food and Feed Security, Rome: FAO.
Verhoeckx, K.C.M., Van Broekhoven, S., Den Hartog-Jager, C.F., Gaspari, M., De Jong, G.A.H., Wichers, H.J., Van Hoffen, E., Houben, G.F. and Knulst, A.C. (2014) ‘House dust mite (Der p 10) and crustacean allergic patients may react to food containing yellow mealworm proteins’, Food and Chemical Toxicology 65: 364-73 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2013.12.049≯.
Wang, D., Zhai, S.W., Zhang, C.X., Bai, Y.Y., An, S.H. and Xu, Y.N. (2005) ‘Evaluation on nutritional value of field crickets as a poultry feedstuff’, Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences 18: 667-70.
WHO (2007) Protein and Amino Acid Requirements in Human Nutrition: Report of a Joint FAO/ WHO/UNU Expert Consultation, WHO Technical Report Series, Geneva: WHO.
Alegbeleye, W.O., Obasa, S.O., Olude, O.O., Otubu, K. and Jimoh, W. (2012) ‘Preliminary evaluation of the nutritive value of the variegated grasshopper (Zonocerus variegatus L.) for African catfish Clarias gariepinus (Burchell. 1822) fingerlings’, Aquaculture Research 43: 412-20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2011.02844.x≯.
Anand, H., Ganguly, A. and Haldar, P. (2008) ‘Potential value of Acridids as high protein supplement for poultry feed’, International Journal of Poultry Science 7: 722-5.
Barroso, F.G., De Haro, C., Sanchez-Muros, M.-J., Venegas, E., Martinez-Sanchez, A. and Perez-Banon, C. (2014) ‘The potential of various insect species for use as food for fish’, Aquaculture 422: 193-201 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2013.12.024≯.
Bondari, K. and Sheppard, D.C. (1981) ‘Soldier fly larvae as feed in commercial fish production’, Aquaculture 24: 103-9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0044-8486(81)90047-8≯.
Bondari, K. and Sheppard, D.C. (1987) ‘Soldier fly Hermetia illucens L. larvae as feed for channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus rafinesque and blue tilapia Oreochromis aureus steindachner’, Aquaculture and Fisheries Management 18: 209-20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.1987.tb00141.x≯.
Bundesministerium für Ernährung Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (BMELV) (2012) Pflanzeneiweißstrategie des BMELV, Berlin: BMELV.
Finke, M.D. (2002) ‘Complete nutrient composition of commercially raised invertebrates used as food for insectivores’, Zoo Biology 21: 269-85 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/zoo.10031≯.
Finke, M.D. (2013) ‘Complete nutrient content of four species of feeder insects’, Zoo Biology 32: 27-36 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21012≯.
Finke, M.D., Defoliart, G. and Benevenga, N.J. (1989) ‘Use of a four-parameter logistic model to evaluate the quality of the protein from three insect species when fed to rats’, Journal of Nutrition 119: 864-71.
Globefish (2014) ‘Fishmeal: March 2014’ [website] <http://www.globefish.org/fishmealmarch-2014.html≯ [accessed 23 June 2014]. http://www.globefish.org/fishmealmarch-2014.html
Hwangbo, J., Hong, E.C., Jang, A., Kang, H.K., Oh, J.S., Kim, B.W. and Park, B.S. (2009) ‘Utilization of house fly-maggots, a feed supplement in the production of broiler chickens’, Journal of Environmental Biology 30: 609-14.
Ijaiya, A.T. and Eko, E.O. (2009) ‘Effect of replacing dietary fish meal with silkworm (Anaphe infracta) caterpillar meal on growth, digestibility and economics of production of starter broiler chickens’, Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 8: 845-9.
Kroeckel, S., Harjes, A.G.E., Roth, I., Katz, H., Wuertz, S., Susenbeth, A. and Schulz, C. (2012) ‘When a turbot catches a fly: evaluation of a pre-pupae meal of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) as fish meal substitute: growth performance and chitin degradation in juvenile turbot (Psetta maxima)’, Aquaculture 364: 345-52 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2012.08.041≯.
Codex Alimentarius Commission (2010) ‘Agenda item 13: comments of Lao PDR: proposal for the new work and development of regional standard for edible crickets and their products (CRD 8)’, 17th Session of the FAO/WHO Coordinating Committee for Asia (CCASIA), Bali, Indonesia.
Naylor, R.L., Goldburg, R.J., Primavera, J.H., Kautsky, N., Beveridge, M.C.M., Clay, J., Folke, C., Lubchenco, J., Mooney, H. and Troell, M. (2000) ‘Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies’, Nature 405: 1017-24 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/35016500≯.
Oliveira-Goumas, B. (2004) European parliament directorate general for research working paper: the fish meal and fish oil industry its role in the common fisheries policy (FISH 113 EN), Luxemburg patent application.
Oonincx, D.G.A.B., Van Itterbeeck, J., Heetkamp, M.J.W., Van den Brand, H., Van Loon, J.J.A. and Van Huis, A. (2010) ‘An exploration on greenhouse gas and ammonia production by insect species suitable for animal or human consumption’, Plos One 5(12): e14445 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0014445≯.
Oyegoke, O.O., Akintola, A.J. and Fasoranti, J.O. (2006) ‘Dietary potentials of the edible larvae of Cirina forda (westwood) as a poultry feed’, African Journal of Biotechnology 5: 1799-1802.
Ramos-Elorduy, J., Pino-M, J.M. and Correa, S.C. (1998) ‘Edible insects of the state of Mexico and determination of their nutritive values’, Anales del Instituto de Biologia Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico Serie Zoologia 69: 65-104.
Ramos-Elorduy, J., Gonzalez, E.A., Hernandez, A.R. and Pino, J.M. (2002) ‘Use of Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) to recycle organic wastes and as feed for broiler chickens’, Journal of Economic Entomology 95: 214-20 <http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1603/0022-0493-95.1.214≯.
Rumpold, B.A. and Schlüter, O.K. (2013a) ‘Nutritional composition and safety aspects of edible insects’, Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 57: 802-23 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201200735≯.
Rumpold, B.A. and Schlüter, O.K. (2013b) ‘Potential and challenges of insects as an innovative source for food and feed production’, Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 17: 1-11 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2012.11.005≯.
Sealey, W.M., Gaylord, T.G., Barrows, F.T., Tomberlin, J.K., McGuire, M.A., Ross, C. and St. Hilaire, S. (2011) ‘Sensory analysis of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, fed enriched black soldier fly prepupae, Hermetia illucens’, Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 42: 34-45 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2010.00441.x≯.
St Hilaire, S., Cranfill, K., McGuire, M.A., Mosley, E.E., Tomberlin, J.K., Newton, L., Sealey, W., Sheppard, C. and Irving, S. (2007a) ‘Fish offal recycling by the black soldier fly produces a foodstuff high in omega-3 fatty acids’, Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 38: 309-13 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2007.00101.x≯.
St Hilaire, S., Sheppard, C., Tomberlin, J.K., Irving, S., Newton, L., McGuire, M.A., Mosley, E.E., Hardy, R.W. and Sealey, W. (2007b) ‘Fly prepupae as a feedstuff for rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss’, Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 38: 59-67 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2006.00073.x≯.
Stamer, A., Wesselss, S., Neidigk, R. and Hoerstgen-Schwark, G. (2014) ‘Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae-meal as an example for a new feed ingredient's class in aquaculture diets’, in G. Rahmann and U. Aksoy (eds.), 4th ISOFAR Scientific Conference ‘Building Organic Bridges’, at the Organic World Conference, Istanbul, Turkey.
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