Sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures have become increasingly important for trade in agricultural and food products, and may particularly affect developing countries' ability to access higher value markets. This article presents a case study of trade-related problems caused by the invasive fruit fly (Bactrocera invadens) in Kenya, which led to a ban of avocado exports to South Africa. The ban had substantial economic, social, environmental, and institutional consequences for the agricultural sector in Kenya, which (as in many developing countries) provides a livelihood and source of income for thousands of smallholder producers. The Kenyan public and private sectors are now in the process of introducing a variety of technical and institutional measures to resolve the problem and to reduce SPS risks for the agri-food sector. The case study is illustrative of the importance of a supportive infrastructure to implement SPS control measures and to ensure continued international trade in agri-food products.

Cassidy, D. (n.d.) Threat and Responses to Bactrocera invadens in Southern and East African Countries Exporting to South Africa, USDA-Foreign Agricultural Service, Pretoria.

Drew, R.A.I., Tsura, K. and White, I.M. (2005) A new species of fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae: Dacinae) from Sri Lanka and Africa. African Entomology 13: 149-150.

Edewa, A. (2011) Report of the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Compliance System of the East African Community: Legal, Regulatory and Institutional Analysis of the EAC SPS Compliance Infrastructure, Project report, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK.

Edewa, A., Otieno, W. and Kleih, U. (2010) Impact Assessment of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures: A Case Study of South Africa's Ban of Avocado Imports from Kenya, Project report, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK.

Ekesi, S. and Billah, M.K. (eds) (2006) A Field Guide to the Management of Economically Important Tephritidae Fruit Flies in Africa, ICIPE, Nairobi.

EPPO (no date) ‘Report of a Pest Risk Analysis for Bactrocera invadens’, European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization 10-16120 <http://www.eppo.int/QUARANTINE/Pest_Risk_Analysis/PRAdocs_insects/10-16120_PRA_Report_Bactrocera_invadens.doc≯ [accessed 18 January 2012] http://www.eppo.int/QUARANTINE/Pest_Risk_Analysis/PRAdocs_insects/10-16120_PRA_Report_Bactrocera_invadens.doc

George, C. and Kirkpatrick, C. (2004) ‘Trade and development: Assessing the impact of trade liberalisation on sustainable development’, Journal of World Trade 38(3): 441-469.

Henson, S.J. (n.d.) Review of Case Studies and Evaluation of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Capacity: Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, Research Work for the Standards Development Trade Facility, University of Guelph, Canada.

Henson, S. (2009) Guidelines on the Use of Economic Analysis to Inform SPS-Related Decision-Making, STDF/Coord/291/Guidelines, Standards and Trade Development Facility, Geneva.

International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) (2010) First Detection of Bactrocera invadens in South Africa [website], IPPC <https://www.ippc.int/index.php?id=1110879&no_cache=1&frompage=209&tx_pestreport_pi1%5BshowUid%5D=216942≯ [accessed 8 March 2012]. https://www.ippc.int/index.php?id=1110879&no_cache=1&frompage=209&tx_pestreport_pi1%5BshowUid%5D=216942

Jaffee, S. and Henson, S. (2004) Standards and Agri-Food Exports from Developing Countries: Rebalancing the Debate, Policy Research Working Paper 3348, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Kirkpatrick, C. and Lee, N. (2002) Further Development of the Methodology for Sustainability Impact Assessment of Proposed WTO Negotiations: Final Report to the European Commission, IDPM, University of Manchester, UK.

Kleih, U. and Cassidy, D. (2010) Impact Assessment of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures: A Case Study of the Impact of Citrus Black Spot on the Citrus Industries in South Africa and Swaziland, Project report, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK.

Lux, S.A., Copeland, R.S., White, I.M., Manrakhan, A. and Bilhah, M.K. (2003) ‘A new invasive fruit fly species from the Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) group detected in East Africa’, Insect Science and its Applications 23(4): 355-61.

Manrakhan, A. and Hattingh, V. (2012) Update on Status of Bactrocera invadens in Limpopo Province, South Africa [website] <http://www.fruit-strategy.com/News/tabid/417/language/en-US/Default.aspx≯ [accessed 19 January 2012]. http://www.fruit-strategy.com/News/tabid/417/language/en-US/Default.aspx

Muchemi, S., Momanyi, G. and Heya, H. (2010) ‘Phytosanitary perspective of Bactrocera invadens (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Kenya and its relationship to trade’, in 12th KARI Biennial Scientific Conference: Transforming Agriculture for Improved Livelihoods through Agricultural Chains, Nairobi, Kenya, 8-12 November 2010 [website], Kenya Agricultural Research Institute <http://www.kari.org/biennialconference/conference12/docs/PHYTOSANITARY%20PERSPECTIVE%20OF%20BACTROCERA%20INVADENS.pdf≯ [accessed 16 January 2012]. http://www.kari.org/biennialconference/conference12/docs/PHYTOSANITARY%20PERSPECTIVE%20OF%20BACTROCERA%20INVADENS.pdf

Mumford, J.D. (2004) ‘Economic analysis of area-wide fruitfly management’, in B. Barnes and M. Addison (eds), Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Fruit Flies of Economic Importance, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 6-10 May 2002.

Otieno, W., Muchemi, S., Waiganjo, M., Chepkwony, N. and Arim, O.J. (n.d.) Fruit Flies Threats and Fighting Perspectives in Kenya, Kenya Position Paper presented at a video Conference at the Kenya Development Learning Center, Nairobi on High value Agriculture in Eastern and Southern Africa (2010).

STDF (2010) A Coordinated Multi-Stakeholder Approach to Control Fruit Fly in West Africa, Standards and Trade Development Facility, Geneva.

Stonehouse, J.M., Mumford, J.D. and Mustafa, G. (1998) ‘Economic losses to Tephritid fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Pakistan’, Crop Protection 17: 159-164 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0261-2194(97)00091-4≯.

Stonehouse, J., Mahmood, R., Poswal, A., Mumford, J., Baloch, K.N., Chaudhary, Z.M., Makhdum, A.H., Mustafa, G. and Huggett, D. (2002) ‘Farm field assessments of fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Pakistan: Distribution, damage and control’, Crop Protection 21(8): 661-669 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0261-2194(02)00018-2≯.

Stonehouse, J.M., Mumford, J.D., Verghese, A., Shukla, R.P., Satpathy, S., Singh, H.S., Jiji, T., Thomas, J., Patel, Z.P., Jhala, R.C., Patel, R.K., Manzar, A., Shivalingaswamy, T.M., Mohantha, A.K., Nair, B., Vidya, C.V., Jagadale, V.S., Sisodiya, D.B. and Joshi, B.K. (2007) ‘Village-level area-wide fruit fly suppression in India: Bait application and male annihilation at village level and farm level’, Crop Protection 26(5): 788-793 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2006.07.008≯.

Stonehouse, J., Ritchie, M., Paqui, T., Ndiaye, M., Tchibozo, S., Dabire, R., Jobe, L. and Billah, M. (2008) Scoping study on the Damages Inflicted by Fruit Flies on West Africa's Fruit Production and Action Plan for a Coordinated Regional Response, study prepared by ITALTREND in association with IAK, SOPEX, ADAS, HYDRO R&D, MEP.

United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) (2007) SPS Compliance: A Requisite for Agro-Industrial Exports from Developing Countries, UNIDO, Vienna.

United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA APHIS) (2009) ‘Plant import: Federal import orders’ [website], USDA APHIS <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/plant_imports/federal_order/index.shtml≯ [accessed 18 January 2012] http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/plant_imports/federal_order/index.shtml

World Bank (2011) World Development Indicators 2011, World Bank, Washington DC.

World Trade Organization (1995) Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, World Trade Organization, Geneva.

Cassidy, D. (n.d.) Threat and Responses to Bactrocera invadens in Southern and East African Countries Exporting to South Africa, USDA-Foreign Agricultural Service, Pretoria.

Drew, R.A.I., Tsura, K. and White, I.M. (2005) A new species of fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae: Dacinae) from Sri Lanka and Africa. African Entomology 13: 149-150.

Edewa, A. (2011) Report of the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Compliance System of the East African Community: Legal, Regulatory and Institutional Analysis of the EAC SPS Compliance Infrastructure, Project report, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK.

Edewa, A., Otieno, W. and Kleih, U. (2010) Impact Assessment of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures: A Case Study of South Africa's Ban of Avocado Imports from Kenya, Project report, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK.

Ekesi, S. and Billah, M.K. (eds) (2006) A Field Guide to the Management of Economically Important Tephritidae Fruit Flies in Africa, ICIPE, Nairobi.

EPPO (no date) ‘Report of a Pest Risk Analysis for Bactrocera invadens’, European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization 10-16120 <http://www.eppo.int/QUARANTINE/Pest_Risk_Analysis/PRAdocs_insects/10-16120_PRA_Report_Bactrocera_invadens.doc≯ [accessed 18 January 2012] http://www.eppo.int/QUARANTINE/Pest_Risk_Analysis/PRAdocs_insects/10-16120_PRA_Report_Bactrocera_invadens.doc

George, C. and Kirkpatrick, C. (2004) ‘Trade and development: Assessing the impact of trade liberalisation on sustainable development’, Journal of World Trade 38(3): 441-469.

Henson, S.J. (n.d.) Review of Case Studies and Evaluation of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Capacity: Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, Research Work for the Standards Development Trade Facility, University of Guelph, Canada.

Henson, S. (2009) Guidelines on the Use of Economic Analysis to Inform SPS-Related Decision-Making, STDF/Coord/291/Guidelines, Standards and Trade Development Facility, Geneva.

International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) (2010) First Detection of Bactrocera invadens in South Africa [website], IPPC <https://www.ippc.int/index.php?id=1110879&no_cache=1&frompage=209&tx_pestreport_pi1%5BshowUid%5D=216942≯ [accessed 8 March 2012]. https://www.ippc.int/index.php?id=1110879&no_cache=1&frompage=209&tx_pestreport_pi1%5BshowUid%5D=216942

Jaffee, S. and Henson, S. (2004) Standards and Agri-Food Exports from Developing Countries: Rebalancing the Debate, Policy Research Working Paper 3348, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Kirkpatrick, C. and Lee, N. (2002) Further Development of the Methodology for Sustainability Impact Assessment of Proposed WTO Negotiations: Final Report to the European Commission, IDPM, University of Manchester, UK.

Kleih, U. and Cassidy, D. (2010) Impact Assessment of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures: A Case Study of the Impact of Citrus Black Spot on the Citrus Industries in South Africa and Swaziland, Project report, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK.

Lux, S.A., Copeland, R.S., White, I.M., Manrakhan, A. and Bilhah, M.K. (2003) ‘A new invasive fruit fly species from the Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) group detected in East Africa’, Insect Science and its Applications 23(4): 355-61.

Manrakhan, A. and Hattingh, V. (2012) Update on Status of Bactrocera invadens in Limpopo Province, South Africa [website] <http://www.fruit-strategy.com/News/tabid/417/language/en-US/Default.aspx≯ [accessed 19 January 2012]. http://www.fruit-strategy.com/News/tabid/417/language/en-US/Default.aspx

Muchemi, S., Momanyi, G. and Heya, H. (2010) ‘Phytosanitary perspective of Bactrocera invadens (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Kenya and its relationship to trade’, in 12th KARI Biennial Scientific Conference: Transforming Agriculture for Improved Livelihoods through Agricultural Chains, Nairobi, Kenya, 8-12 November 2010 [website], Kenya Agricultural Research Institute <http://www.kari.org/biennialconference/conference12/docs/PHYTOSANITARY%20PERSPECTIVE%20OF%20BACTROCERA%20INVADENS.pdf≯ [accessed 16 January 2012]. http://www.kari.org/biennialconference/conference12/docs/PHYTOSANITARY%20PERSPECTIVE%20OF%20BACTROCERA%20INVADENS.pdf

Mumford, J.D. (2004) ‘Economic analysis of area-wide fruitfly management’, in B. Barnes and M. Addison (eds), Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Fruit Flies of Economic Importance, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 6-10 May 2002.

Otieno, W., Muchemi, S., Waiganjo, M., Chepkwony, N. and Arim, O.J. (n.d.) Fruit Flies Threats and Fighting Perspectives in Kenya, Kenya Position Paper presented at a video Conference at the Kenya Development Learning Center, Nairobi on High value Agriculture in Eastern and Southern Africa (2010).

STDF (2010) A Coordinated Multi-Stakeholder Approach to Control Fruit Fly in West Africa, Standards and Trade Development Facility, Geneva.

Stonehouse, J.M., Mumford, J.D. and Mustafa, G. (1998) ‘Economic losses to Tephritid fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Pakistan’, Crop Protection 17: 159-164 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0261-2194(97)00091-4≯.

Stonehouse, J., Mahmood, R., Poswal, A., Mumford, J., Baloch, K.N., Chaudhary, Z.M., Makhdum, A.H., Mustafa, G. and Huggett, D. (2002) ‘Farm field assessments of fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Pakistan: Distribution, damage and control’, Crop Protection 21(8): 661-669 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0261-2194(02)00018-2≯.

Stonehouse, J.M., Mumford, J.D., Verghese, A., Shukla, R.P., Satpathy, S., Singh, H.S., Jiji, T., Thomas, J., Patel, Z.P., Jhala, R.C., Patel, R.K., Manzar, A., Shivalingaswamy, T.M., Mohantha, A.K., Nair, B., Vidya, C.V., Jagadale, V.S., Sisodiya, D.B. and Joshi, B.K. (2007) ‘Village-level area-wide fruit fly suppression in India: Bait application and male annihilation at village level and farm level’, Crop Protection 26(5): 788-793 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2006.07.008≯.

Stonehouse, J., Ritchie, M., Paqui, T., Ndiaye, M., Tchibozo, S., Dabire, R., Jobe, L. and Billah, M. (2008) Scoping study on the Damages Inflicted by Fruit Flies on West Africa's Fruit Production and Action Plan for a Coordinated Regional Response, study prepared by ITALTREND in association with IAK, SOPEX, ADAS, HYDRO R&D, MEP.

United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) (2007) SPS Compliance: A Requisite for Agro-Industrial Exports from Developing Countries, UNIDO, Vienna.

United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA APHIS) (2009) ‘Plant import: Federal import orders’ [website], USDA APHIS <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/plant_imports/federal_order/index.shtml≯ [accessed 18 January 2012] http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/plant_imports/federal_order/index.shtml

World Bank (2011) World Development Indicators 2011, World Bank, Washington DC.

World Trade Organization (1995) Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, World Trade Organization, Geneva.

Cassidy, D. (n.d.) Threat and Responses to Bactrocera invadens in Southern and East African Countries Exporting to South Africa, USDA-Foreign Agricultural Service, Pretoria.

Drew, R.A.I., Tsura, K. and White, I.M. (2005) A new species of fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae: Dacinae) from Sri Lanka and Africa. African Entomology 13: 149-150.

Edewa, A. (2011) Report of the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Compliance System of the East African Community: Legal, Regulatory and Institutional Analysis of the EAC SPS Compliance Infrastructure, Project report, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK.

Edewa, A., Otieno, W. and Kleih, U. (2010) Impact Assessment of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures: A Case Study of South Africa's Ban of Avocado Imports from Kenya, Project report, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK.

Ekesi, S. and Billah, M.K. (eds) (2006) A Field Guide to the Management of Economically Important Tephritidae Fruit Flies in Africa, ICIPE, Nairobi.

EPPO (no date) ‘Report of a Pest Risk Analysis for Bactrocera invadens’, European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization 10-16120 <http://www.eppo.int/QUARANTINE/Pest_Risk_Analysis/PRAdocs_insects/10-16120_PRA_Report_Bactrocera_invadens.doc≯ [accessed 18 January 2012] http://www.eppo.int/QUARANTINE/Pest_Risk_Analysis/PRAdocs_insects/10-16120_PRA_Report_Bactrocera_invadens.doc

George, C. and Kirkpatrick, C. (2004) ‘Trade and development: Assessing the impact of trade liberalisation on sustainable development’, Journal of World Trade 38(3): 441-469.

Henson, S.J. (n.d.) Review of Case Studies and Evaluation of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Capacity: Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, Research Work for the Standards Development Trade Facility, University of Guelph, Canada.

Henson, S. (2009) Guidelines on the Use of Economic Analysis to Inform SPS-Related Decision-Making, STDF/Coord/291/Guidelines, Standards and Trade Development Facility, Geneva.

International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) (2010) First Detection of Bactrocera invadens in South Africa [website], IPPC <https://www.ippc.int/index.php?id=1110879&no_cache=1&frompage=209&tx_pestreport_pi1%5BshowUid%5D=216942≯ [accessed 8 March 2012]. https://www.ippc.int/index.php?id=1110879&no_cache=1&frompage=209&tx_pestreport_pi1%5BshowUid%5D=216942

Jaffee, S. and Henson, S. (2004) Standards and Agri-Food Exports from Developing Countries: Rebalancing the Debate, Policy Research Working Paper 3348, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Kirkpatrick, C. and Lee, N. (2002) Further Development of the Methodology for Sustainability Impact Assessment of Proposed WTO Negotiations: Final Report to the European Commission, IDPM, University of Manchester, UK.

Kleih, U. and Cassidy, D. (2010) Impact Assessment of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures: A Case Study of the Impact of Citrus Black Spot on the Citrus Industries in South Africa and Swaziland, Project report, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK.

Lux, S.A., Copeland, R.S., White, I.M., Manrakhan, A. and Bilhah, M.K. (2003) ‘A new invasive fruit fly species from the Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) group detected in East Africa’, Insect Science and its Applications 23(4): 355-61.

Manrakhan, A. and Hattingh, V. (2012) Update on Status of Bactrocera invadens in Limpopo Province, South Africa [website] <http://www.fruit-strategy.com/News/tabid/417/language/en-US/Default.aspx≯ [accessed 19 January 2012]. http://www.fruit-strategy.com/News/tabid/417/language/en-US/Default.aspx

Muchemi, S., Momanyi, G. and Heya, H. (2010) ‘Phytosanitary perspective of Bactrocera invadens (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Kenya and its relationship to trade’, in 12th KARI Biennial Scientific Conference: Transforming Agriculture for Improved Livelihoods through Agricultural Chains, Nairobi, Kenya, 8-12 November 2010 [website], Kenya Agricultural Research Institute <http://www.kari.org/biennialconference/conference12/docs/PHYTOSANITARY%20PERSPECTIVE%20OF%20BACTROCERA%20INVADENS.pdf≯ [accessed 16 January 2012]. http://www.kari.org/biennialconference/conference12/docs/PHYTOSANITARY%20PERSPECTIVE%20OF%20BACTROCERA%20INVADENS.pdf

Mumford, J.D. (2004) ‘Economic analysis of area-wide fruitfly management’, in B. Barnes and M. Addison (eds), Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Fruit Flies of Economic Importance, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 6-10 May 2002.

Otieno, W., Muchemi, S., Waiganjo, M., Chepkwony, N. and Arim, O.J. (n.d.) Fruit Flies Threats and Fighting Perspectives in Kenya, Kenya Position Paper presented at a video Conference at the Kenya Development Learning Center, Nairobi on High value Agriculture in Eastern and Southern Africa (2010).

STDF (2010) A Coordinated Multi-Stakeholder Approach to Control Fruit Fly in West Africa, Standards and Trade Development Facility, Geneva.

Stonehouse, J.M., Mumford, J.D. and Mustafa, G. (1998) ‘Economic losses to Tephritid fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Pakistan’, Crop Protection 17: 159-164 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0261-2194(97)00091-4≯.

Stonehouse, J., Mahmood, R., Poswal, A., Mumford, J., Baloch, K.N., Chaudhary, Z.M., Makhdum, A.H., Mustafa, G. and Huggett, D. (2002) ‘Farm field assessments of fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Pakistan: Distribution, damage and control’, Crop Protection 21(8): 661-669 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0261-2194(02)00018-2≯.

Stonehouse, J.M., Mumford, J.D., Verghese, A., Shukla, R.P., Satpathy, S., Singh, H.S., Jiji, T., Thomas, J., Patel, Z.P., Jhala, R.C., Patel, R.K., Manzar, A., Shivalingaswamy, T.M., Mohantha, A.K., Nair, B., Vidya, C.V., Jagadale, V.S., Sisodiya, D.B. and Joshi, B.K. (2007) ‘Village-level area-wide fruit fly suppression in India: Bait application and male annihilation at village level and farm level’, Crop Protection 26(5): 788-793 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2006.07.008≯.

Stonehouse, J., Ritchie, M., Paqui, T., Ndiaye, M., Tchibozo, S., Dabire, R., Jobe, L. and Billah, M. (2008) Scoping study on the Damages Inflicted by Fruit Flies on West Africa's Fruit Production and Action Plan for a Coordinated Regional Response, study prepared by ITALTREND in association with IAK, SOPEX, ADAS, HYDRO R&D, MEP.

United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) (2007) SPS Compliance: A Requisite for Agro-Industrial Exports from Developing Countries, UNIDO, Vienna.

United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA APHIS) (2009) ‘Plant import: Federal import orders’ [website], USDA APHIS <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/plant_imports/federal_order/index.shtml≯ [accessed 18 January 2012] http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/plant_imports/federal_order/index.shtml

World Bank (2011) World Development Indicators 2011, World Bank, Washington DC.

World Trade Organization (1995) Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, World Trade Organization, Geneva.

Cassidy, D. (n.d.) Threat and Responses to Bactrocera invadens in Southern and East African Countries Exporting to South Africa, USDA-Foreign Agricultural Service, Pretoria.

Drew, R.A.I., Tsura, K. and White, I.M. (2005) A new species of fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae: Dacinae) from Sri Lanka and Africa. African Entomology 13: 149-150.

Edewa, A. (2011) Report of the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Compliance System of the East African Community: Legal, Regulatory and Institutional Analysis of the EAC SPS Compliance Infrastructure, Project report, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK.

Edewa, A., Otieno, W. and Kleih, U. (2010) Impact Assessment of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures: A Case Study of South Africa's Ban of Avocado Imports from Kenya, Project report, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK.

Ekesi, S. and Billah, M.K. (eds) (2006) A Field Guide to the Management of Economically Important Tephritidae Fruit Flies in Africa, ICIPE, Nairobi.

EPPO (no date) ‘Report of a Pest Risk Analysis for Bactrocera invadens’, European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization 10-16120 <http://www.eppo.int/QUARANTINE/Pest_Risk_Analysis/PRAdocs_insects/10-16120_PRA_Report_Bactrocera_invadens.doc≯ [accessed 18 January 2012] http://www.eppo.int/QUARANTINE/Pest_Risk_Analysis/PRAdocs_insects/10-16120_PRA_Report_Bactrocera_invadens.doc

George, C. and Kirkpatrick, C. (2004) ‘Trade and development: Assessing the impact of trade liberalisation on sustainable development’, Journal of World Trade 38(3): 441-469.

Henson, S.J. (n.d.) Review of Case Studies and Evaluation of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Capacity: Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, Research Work for the Standards Development Trade Facility, University of Guelph, Canada.

Henson, S. (2009) Guidelines on the Use of Economic Analysis to Inform SPS-Related Decision-Making, STDF/Coord/291/Guidelines, Standards and Trade Development Facility, Geneva.

International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) (2010) First Detection of Bactrocera invadens in South Africa [website], IPPC <https://www.ippc.int/index.php?id=1110879&no_cache=1&frompage=209&tx_pestreport_pi1%5BshowUid%5D=216942≯ [accessed 8 March 2012]. https://www.ippc.int/index.php?id=1110879&no_cache=1&frompage=209&tx_pestreport_pi1%5BshowUid%5D=216942

Jaffee, S. and Henson, S. (2004) Standards and Agri-Food Exports from Developing Countries: Rebalancing the Debate, Policy Research Working Paper 3348, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Kirkpatrick, C. and Lee, N. (2002) Further Development of the Methodology for Sustainability Impact Assessment of Proposed WTO Negotiations: Final Report to the European Commission, IDPM, University of Manchester, UK.

Kleih, U. and Cassidy, D. (2010) Impact Assessment of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures: A Case Study of the Impact of Citrus Black Spot on the Citrus Industries in South Africa and Swaziland, Project report, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK.

Lux, S.A., Copeland, R.S., White, I.M., Manrakhan, A. and Bilhah, M.K. (2003) ‘A new invasive fruit fly species from the Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) group detected in East Africa’, Insect Science and its Applications 23(4): 355-61.

Manrakhan, A. and Hattingh, V. (2012) Update on Status of Bactrocera invadens in Limpopo Province, South Africa [website] <http://www.fruit-strategy.com/News/tabid/417/language/en-US/Default.aspx≯ [accessed 19 January 2012]. http://www.fruit-strategy.com/News/tabid/417/language/en-US/Default.aspx

Muchemi, S., Momanyi, G. and Heya, H. (2010) ‘Phytosanitary perspective of Bactrocera invadens (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Kenya and its relationship to trade’, in 12th KARI Biennial Scientific Conference: Transforming Agriculture for Improved Livelihoods through Agricultural Chains, Nairobi, Kenya, 8-12 November 2010 [website], Kenya Agricultural Research Institute <http://www.kari.org/biennialconference/conference12/docs/PHYTOSANITARY%20PERSPECTIVE%20OF%20BACTROCERA%20INVADENS.pdf≯ [accessed 16 January 2012]. http://www.kari.org/biennialconference/conference12/docs/PHYTOSANITARY%20PERSPECTIVE%20OF%20BACTROCERA%20INVADENS.pdf

Mumford, J.D. (2004) ‘Economic analysis of area-wide fruitfly management’, in B. Barnes and M. Addison (eds), Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Fruit Flies of Economic Importance, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 6-10 May 2002.

Otieno, W., Muchemi, S., Waiganjo, M., Chepkwony, N. and Arim, O.J. (n.d.) Fruit Flies Threats and Fighting Perspectives in Kenya, Kenya Position Paper presented at a video Conference at the Kenya Development Learning Center, Nairobi on High value Agriculture in Eastern and Southern Africa (2010).

STDF (2010) A Coordinated Multi-Stakeholder Approach to Control Fruit Fly in West Africa, Standards and Trade Development Facility, Geneva.

Stonehouse, J.M., Mumford, J.D. and Mustafa, G. (1998) ‘Economic losses to Tephritid fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Pakistan’, Crop Protection 17: 159-164 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0261-2194(97)00091-4≯.

Stonehouse, J., Mahmood, R., Poswal, A., Mumford, J., Baloch, K.N., Chaudhary, Z.M., Makhdum, A.H., Mustafa, G. and Huggett, D. (2002) ‘Farm field assessments of fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Pakistan: Distribution, damage and control’, Crop Protection 21(8): 661-669 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0261-2194(02)00018-2≯.

Stonehouse, J.M., Mumford, J.D., Verghese, A., Shukla, R.P., Satpathy, S., Singh, H.S., Jiji, T., Thomas, J., Patel, Z.P., Jhala, R.C., Patel, R.K., Manzar, A., Shivalingaswamy, T.M., Mohantha, A.K., Nair, B., Vidya, C.V., Jagadale, V.S., Sisodiya, D.B. and Joshi, B.K. (2007) ‘Village-level area-wide fruit fly suppression in India: Bait application and male annihilation at village level and farm level’, Crop Protection 26(5): 788-793 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2006.07.008≯.

Stonehouse, J., Ritchie, M., Paqui, T., Ndiaye, M., Tchibozo, S., Dabire, R., Jobe, L. and Billah, M. (2008) Scoping study on the Damages Inflicted by Fruit Flies on West Africa's Fruit Production and Action Plan for a Coordinated Regional Response, study prepared by ITALTREND in association with IAK, SOPEX, ADAS, HYDRO R&D, MEP.

United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) (2007) SPS Compliance: A Requisite for Agro-Industrial Exports from Developing Countries, UNIDO, Vienna.

United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA APHIS) (2009) ‘Plant import: Federal import orders’ [website], USDA APHIS <http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/plant_imports/federal_order/index.shtml≯ [accessed 18 January 2012] http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/plant_imports/federal_order/index.shtml

World Bank (2011) World Development Indicators 2011, World Bank, Washington DC.

World Trade Organization (1995) Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, World Trade Organization, Geneva.