Who will feed the world? The production challenge
This article focuses on the production challenge contained within the ambitious question of ‘Who will feed the world?’ By looking at the different players in developing countries’ agricultural systems: small-scale and large-scale producers and systems of production — LEI, low external input agriculture and HEI, high external input’ agriculture — it aims at exploring how to achieve sustainable agricultural growth, allowing for: food security, poverty reduction, and environmental protection. The article argues that debates which polarize small-scale versus large-scale models, or LEI versus HEI, have obscured the potential of building on complementarities. Drawing from case studies and a review of the current literature, the article calls for a four-pronged approach: supporting subsistence farmers; empowering small investor farmers; making large investments pro-poor; and building on complementarities between large and small farms. A variety of institutional arrangements could be used to combine the assets related to large-scale farms — capital, technology, and markets — with those of small-holder producers — land, labour, and local knowledge — to build sustainable food value chains.Berdegué, J.A. and Escobar, G. (2002) Rural Diversity, Agricultural Innovation Policies and Poverty Reduction [website], AgREN Network Paper 122, Overseas Development Institute, London, <http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=4275&title=agricultural-knowledge-information-systems-akis-rurallivelihood-diversity≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=4275&title=agricultural-knowledge-information-systems-akis-rurallivelihood-diversity
Brussaard, L., Caron, P., Campbell, B., Lipper, L., Mainka, S., Rabbinge, R., Babin, D., and Pulleman, M. (2010) ‘Reconciling biodiversity, conservation and food security: Scientific challenges for a new agriculture’, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2: 34-42.
Collier, P. and Dercon, S. (2009) ‘African agriculture in 50 years: Smallholders in a rapidly changing world?’ Conference Paper, How to Feed the World in 2050: Proceedings of a Technical Meeting of Experts, Rome, Italy, 24-26 June 2009.
de Janvry, A. (2009) ‘How to Feed the World 2050: FAO High-Level Expert Forum’ [website], <www.fao.org/wsfs/forum2050/wsfs-background-documents/hlef-presentations/en/≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. www.fao.org/wsfs/forum2050/wsfs-background-documents/hlef-presentations/en/
de Janvry, A. and Sadoulet, E. (2008) Agriculture for Development in Africa: Business-as-Usual or New Departures? [website], University of California at Berkeley, <http://are.berkeley.edu/~sadoulet/papers/Entebbe6-08.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://are.berkeley.edu/~sadoulet/papers/Entebbe6-08.pdf
de Koning, M. and de SteenhuijsenPiters, B. (2008) Farmers as Shareholders: A Close Look at Recent Experience, Royal Tropical Institute (KIT), Amsterdam.
De Schutter, O. (2009a) ‘Large-scale Land Acquisitions and Leases: A Set of Core Principles and Measures to Address the Human Rights Challenge’, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, UNHCR [website] <http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/food/docs/BriefingNotelandgrab.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/food/docs/BriefingNotelandgrab.pdf
De Schutter, O. (2009b) ‘Interim Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food’, presented to the 63rd Session of the United Nations General Assembly [website] <http://www.righttofood.org/new/PDF/A62289.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.righttofood.org/new/PDF/A62289.pdf
Elephant Pepper (2010) Case study presented at the Sustainable Spice Conference, Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 12 October 2010 [website], <http://www.kit.nl/spiceconference≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.kit.nl/spiceconference
FAO/WFP (2010) The State of Food Insecurity in the World: Addressing Food Security in Protracted Crises [website] <http://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/en/≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/en/
Grosskurth, J. (2010) Futures of Technology in Africa [website], STT (Study Centre for Technology Trends), The Hague <www.stt.nl/uploads/documents/192.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. www.stt.nl/uploads/documents/192.pdf
IAASTD (International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development) (2009) ‘Agriculture at a Crossroads: Implementing the findings of the international agriculture assessment - IAASTD’, presentation at Intergovernmental Plenary Session, Johannesburg, South Africa, April 2008 [website] <http://www.ukfg.org.uk/agriculture_crossroads/≯. http://www.ukfg.org.uk/agriculture_crossroads/
IFAD (2009) ‘Food Security 2009: Achieving Long-term Solutions’, presentation to Chatham House Conference, London, 2-3 November 2009.
OECD (2006) Promoting Pro-poor Growth: Agriculture [website] <http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/9/60/37922155.pdf≯[accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/9/60/37922155.pdf
OECD/AfDB (2005) African Economic Outlook: Financing Small and Medium Enterprise Development [website] <http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/57/59/34908457.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/57/59/34908457.pdf
Oxfam America (2010) More Rice for People More Water for the Planet: System of Rice Intensification (SRI) [website] <http://www.agroecologic.com/images/SRI_layoutFINAL-LoRes.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.agroecologic.com/images/SRI_layoutFINAL-LoRes.pdf
Oxfam International (2009a) ‘Harnessing Agriculture for Development’ [website], Research Report <http://www.oxfam.org/en/policy/harnessingagriculture-development≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.oxfam.org/en/policy/harnessingagriculture-development
Oxfam International (2009b) ‘Investing in Poor Farmers: Rethinking How to Invest in Agriculture’ [website], Briefing Paper <http://www.oxfam.org.uk/resources/policy/trade/investing-in-agriculture.html≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.oxfam.org.uk/resources/policy/trade/investing-in-agriculture.html
Oxfam Novib (2008) The Right to a Sustainable Rural Livelihood: Strategies, Lessons Learned and Actions (2008-2010) [website] <http://www.wemanglobal.org/documents/ON_Economic%20Justice.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.wemanglobal.org/documents/ON_Economic%20Justice.pdf
Pretty, J. (2006) ‘Agroecological Approaches to Agricultural Development’ Rimisp-Latin American Center for Rural Development [website] <http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2008/Resources/2795087-1191427986785/PrettyJ_AgroecologicalApproachesToAgriDevt%5B1%5D.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2008/Resources/2795087-1191427986785/PrettyJ_AgroecologicalApproachesToAgriDevt%5B1%5D.pdf
Pretty, J. (2008) ‘Agricultural sustainability: Concepts, principles and evidence’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences 363: 447-65.
Reardon, T. (2003) ‘The rise of supermarkets across Africa threatens small farmers: Opportunities and challenges in a changing market’, paper presented at the FAO Workshop on Globalization, Urbanization, and Food Systems in Developing Countries, Rome, 8 October 2003.
Vermeulen, S. and Cotula, L. (2010) ‘Making the Most of Agricultural Investment: A Survey of Business Models that Provide Opportunities for Smallholders’, FAO and IIED [website] <http://www.ifad.org/pub/land/agri_investment.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.ifad.org/pub/land/agri_investment.pdf
Wegner, L. (2006) ‘Microfinance: How Bankers Could Buy Back Their Soul’ [website], OECD Development Centre <http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/58/10/38272013.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/58/10/38272013.pdf
Wiggins, S. (2009) ‘Can the smallholder model deliver poverty reduction and food security for a rapidly growing population in Africa?’ [website], Overseas Development Institute, London <ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/012/ak982e/ak982e00.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/012/ak982e/ak982e00.pdf
World Bank (2008a) Competitive Commercial Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa (CCAA) Study, World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank (2008b) World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development, World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank (2009) Awakening Africa's Sleeping Giant: Prospects for Commercial Agriculture in the Guinea Savannah Zone and Beyond, World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank (2010) Rising Global Interest in Farmland: Can it Yield Sustainable Benefits? World Bank, Washington, DC.
Berdegué, J.A. and Escobar, G. (2002) Rural Diversity, Agricultural Innovation Policies and Poverty Reduction [website], AgREN Network Paper 122, Overseas Development Institute, London, <http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=4275&title=agricultural-knowledge-information-systems-akis-rurallivelihood-diversity≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=4275&title=agricultural-knowledge-information-systems-akis-rurallivelihood-diversity
Brussaard, L., Caron, P., Campbell, B., Lipper, L., Mainka, S., Rabbinge, R., Babin, D., and Pulleman, M. (2010) ‘Reconciling biodiversity, conservation and food security: Scientific challenges for a new agriculture’, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2: 34-42.
Collier, P. and Dercon, S. (2009) ‘African agriculture in 50 years: Smallholders in a rapidly changing world?’ Conference Paper, How to Feed the World in 2050: Proceedings of a Technical Meeting of Experts, Rome, Italy, 24-26 June 2009.
de Janvry, A. (2009) ‘How to Feed the World 2050: FAO High-Level Expert Forum’ [website], <www.fao.org/wsfs/forum2050/wsfs-background-documents/hlef-presentations/en/≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. www.fao.org/wsfs/forum2050/wsfs-background-documents/hlef-presentations/en/
de Janvry, A. and Sadoulet, E. (2008) Agriculture for Development in Africa: Business-as-Usual or New Departures? [website], University of California at Berkeley, <http://are.berkeley.edu/~sadoulet/papers/Entebbe6-08.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://are.berkeley.edu/~sadoulet/papers/Entebbe6-08.pdf
de Koning, M. and de SteenhuijsenPiters, B. (2008) Farmers as Shareholders: A Close Look at Recent Experience, Royal Tropical Institute (KIT), Amsterdam.
De Schutter, O. (2009a) ‘Large-scale Land Acquisitions and Leases: A Set of Core Principles and Measures to Address the Human Rights Challenge’, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, UNHCR [website] <http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/food/docs/BriefingNotelandgrab.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/food/docs/BriefingNotelandgrab.pdf
De Schutter, O. (2009b) ‘Interim Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food’, presented to the 63rd Session of the United Nations General Assembly [website] <http://www.righttofood.org/new/PDF/A62289.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.righttofood.org/new/PDF/A62289.pdf
Elephant Pepper (2010) Case study presented at the Sustainable Spice Conference, Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 12 October 2010 [website], <http://www.kit.nl/spiceconference≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.kit.nl/spiceconference
FAO/WFP (2010) The State of Food Insecurity in the World: Addressing Food Security in Protracted Crises [website] <http://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/en/≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/en/
Grosskurth, J. (2010) Futures of Technology in Africa [website], STT (Study Centre for Technology Trends), The Hague <www.stt.nl/uploads/documents/192.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. www.stt.nl/uploads/documents/192.pdf
IAASTD (International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development) (2009) ‘Agriculture at a Crossroads: Implementing the findings of the international agriculture assessment - IAASTD’, presentation at Intergovernmental Plenary Session, Johannesburg, South Africa, April 2008 [website] <http://www.ukfg.org.uk/agriculture_crossroads/≯. http://www.ukfg.org.uk/agriculture_crossroads/
IFAD (2009) ‘Food Security 2009: Achieving Long-term Solutions’, presentation to Chatham House Conference, London, 2-3 November 2009.
OECD (2006) Promoting Pro-poor Growth: Agriculture [website] <http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/9/60/37922155.pdf≯[accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/9/60/37922155.pdf
OECD/AfDB (2005) African Economic Outlook: Financing Small and Medium Enterprise Development [website] <http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/57/59/34908457.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/57/59/34908457.pdf
Oxfam America (2010) More Rice for People More Water for the Planet: System of Rice Intensification (SRI) [website] <http://www.agroecologic.com/images/SRI_layoutFINAL-LoRes.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.agroecologic.com/images/SRI_layoutFINAL-LoRes.pdf
Oxfam International (2009a) ‘Harnessing Agriculture for Development’ [website], Research Report <http://www.oxfam.org/en/policy/harnessingagriculture-development≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.oxfam.org/en/policy/harnessingagriculture-development
Oxfam International (2009b) ‘Investing in Poor Farmers: Rethinking How to Invest in Agriculture’ [website], Briefing Paper <http://www.oxfam.org.uk/resources/policy/trade/investing-in-agriculture.html≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.oxfam.org.uk/resources/policy/trade/investing-in-agriculture.html
Oxfam Novib (2008) The Right to a Sustainable Rural Livelihood: Strategies, Lessons Learned and Actions (2008-2010) [website] <http://www.wemanglobal.org/documents/ON_Economic%20Justice.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.wemanglobal.org/documents/ON_Economic%20Justice.pdf
Pretty, J. (2006) ‘Agroecological Approaches to Agricultural Development’ Rimisp-Latin American Center for Rural Development [website] <http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2008/Resources/2795087-1191427986785/PrettyJ_AgroecologicalApproachesToAgriDevt%5B1%5D.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2008/Resources/2795087-1191427986785/PrettyJ_AgroecologicalApproachesToAgriDevt%5B1%5D.pdf
Pretty, J. (2008) ‘Agricultural sustainability: Concepts, principles and evidence’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences 363: 447-65.
Reardon, T. (2003) ‘The rise of supermarkets across Africa threatens small farmers: Opportunities and challenges in a changing market’, paper presented at the FAO Workshop on Globalization, Urbanization, and Food Systems in Developing Countries, Rome, 8 October 2003.
Vermeulen, S. and Cotula, L. (2010) ‘Making the Most of Agricultural Investment: A Survey of Business Models that Provide Opportunities for Smallholders’, FAO and IIED [website] <http://www.ifad.org/pub/land/agri_investment.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.ifad.org/pub/land/agri_investment.pdf
Wegner, L. (2006) ‘Microfinance: How Bankers Could Buy Back Their Soul’ [website], OECD Development Centre <http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/58/10/38272013.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/58/10/38272013.pdf
Wiggins, S. (2009) ‘Can the smallholder model deliver poverty reduction and food security for a rapidly growing population in Africa?’ [website], Overseas Development Institute, London <ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/012/ak982e/ak982e00.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/012/ak982e/ak982e00.pdf
World Bank (2008a) Competitive Commercial Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa (CCAA) Study, World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank (2008b) World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development, World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank (2009) Awakening Africa's Sleeping Giant: Prospects for Commercial Agriculture in the Guinea Savannah Zone and Beyond, World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank (2010) Rising Global Interest in Farmland: Can it Yield Sustainable Benefits? World Bank, Washington, DC.
Berdegué, J.A. and Escobar, G. (2002) Rural Diversity, Agricultural Innovation Policies and Poverty Reduction [website], AgREN Network Paper 122, Overseas Development Institute, London, <http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=4275&title=agricultural-knowledge-information-systems-akis-rurallivelihood-diversity≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=4275&title=agricultural-knowledge-information-systems-akis-rurallivelihood-diversity
Brussaard, L., Caron, P., Campbell, B., Lipper, L., Mainka, S., Rabbinge, R., Babin, D., and Pulleman, M. (2010) ‘Reconciling biodiversity, conservation and food security: Scientific challenges for a new agriculture’, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2: 34-42.
Collier, P. and Dercon, S. (2009) ‘African agriculture in 50 years: Smallholders in a rapidly changing world?’ Conference Paper, How to Feed the World in 2050: Proceedings of a Technical Meeting of Experts, Rome, Italy, 24-26 June 2009.
de Janvry, A. (2009) ‘How to Feed the World 2050: FAO High-Level Expert Forum’ [website], <www.fao.org/wsfs/forum2050/wsfs-background-documents/hlef-presentations/en/≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. www.fao.org/wsfs/forum2050/wsfs-background-documents/hlef-presentations/en/
de Janvry, A. and Sadoulet, E. (2008) Agriculture for Development in Africa: Business-as-Usual or New Departures? [website], University of California at Berkeley, <http://are.berkeley.edu/~sadoulet/papers/Entebbe6-08.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://are.berkeley.edu/~sadoulet/papers/Entebbe6-08.pdf
de Koning, M. and de SteenhuijsenPiters, B. (2008) Farmers as Shareholders: A Close Look at Recent Experience, Royal Tropical Institute (KIT), Amsterdam.
De Schutter, O. (2009a) ‘Large-scale Land Acquisitions and Leases: A Set of Core Principles and Measures to Address the Human Rights Challenge’, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, UNHCR [website] <http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/food/docs/BriefingNotelandgrab.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/food/docs/BriefingNotelandgrab.pdf
De Schutter, O. (2009b) ‘Interim Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food’, presented to the 63rd Session of the United Nations General Assembly [website] <http://www.righttofood.org/new/PDF/A62289.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.righttofood.org/new/PDF/A62289.pdf
Elephant Pepper (2010) Case study presented at the Sustainable Spice Conference, Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 12 October 2010 [website], <http://www.kit.nl/spiceconference≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.kit.nl/spiceconference
FAO/WFP (2010) The State of Food Insecurity in the World: Addressing Food Security in Protracted Crises [website] <http://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/en/≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/en/
Grosskurth, J. (2010) Futures of Technology in Africa [website], STT (Study Centre for Technology Trends), The Hague <www.stt.nl/uploads/documents/192.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. www.stt.nl/uploads/documents/192.pdf
IAASTD (International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development) (2009) ‘Agriculture at a Crossroads: Implementing the findings of the international agriculture assessment - IAASTD’, presentation at Intergovernmental Plenary Session, Johannesburg, South Africa, April 2008 [website] <http://www.ukfg.org.uk/agriculture_crossroads/≯. http://www.ukfg.org.uk/agriculture_crossroads/
IFAD (2009) ‘Food Security 2009: Achieving Long-term Solutions’, presentation to Chatham House Conference, London, 2-3 November 2009.
OECD (2006) Promoting Pro-poor Growth: Agriculture [website] <http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/9/60/37922155.pdf≯[accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/9/60/37922155.pdf
OECD/AfDB (2005) African Economic Outlook: Financing Small and Medium Enterprise Development [website] <http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/57/59/34908457.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/57/59/34908457.pdf
Oxfam America (2010) More Rice for People More Water for the Planet: System of Rice Intensification (SRI) [website] <http://www.agroecologic.com/images/SRI_layoutFINAL-LoRes.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.agroecologic.com/images/SRI_layoutFINAL-LoRes.pdf
Oxfam International (2009a) ‘Harnessing Agriculture for Development’ [website], Research Report <http://www.oxfam.org/en/policy/harnessingagriculture-development≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.oxfam.org/en/policy/harnessingagriculture-development
Oxfam International (2009b) ‘Investing in Poor Farmers: Rethinking How to Invest in Agriculture’ [website], Briefing Paper <http://www.oxfam.org.uk/resources/policy/trade/investing-in-agriculture.html≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.oxfam.org.uk/resources/policy/trade/investing-in-agriculture.html
Oxfam Novib (2008) The Right to a Sustainable Rural Livelihood: Strategies, Lessons Learned and Actions (2008-2010) [website] <http://www.wemanglobal.org/documents/ON_Economic%20Justice.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.wemanglobal.org/documents/ON_Economic%20Justice.pdf
Pretty, J. (2006) ‘Agroecological Approaches to Agricultural Development’ Rimisp-Latin American Center for Rural Development [website] <http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2008/Resources/2795087-1191427986785/PrettyJ_AgroecologicalApproachesToAgriDevt%5B1%5D.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2008/Resources/2795087-1191427986785/PrettyJ_AgroecologicalApproachesToAgriDevt%5B1%5D.pdf
Pretty, J. (2008) ‘Agricultural sustainability: Concepts, principles and evidence’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences 363: 447-65.
Reardon, T. (2003) ‘The rise of supermarkets across Africa threatens small farmers: Opportunities and challenges in a changing market’, paper presented at the FAO Workshop on Globalization, Urbanization, and Food Systems in Developing Countries, Rome, 8 October 2003.
Vermeulen, S. and Cotula, L. (2010) ‘Making the Most of Agricultural Investment: A Survey of Business Models that Provide Opportunities for Smallholders’, FAO and IIED [website] <http://www.ifad.org/pub/land/agri_investment.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.ifad.org/pub/land/agri_investment.pdf
Wegner, L. (2006) ‘Microfinance: How Bankers Could Buy Back Their Soul’ [website], OECD Development Centre <http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/58/10/38272013.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/58/10/38272013.pdf
Wiggins, S. (2009) ‘Can the smallholder model deliver poverty reduction and food security for a rapidly growing population in Africa?’ [website], Overseas Development Institute, London <ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/012/ak982e/ak982e00.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/012/ak982e/ak982e00.pdf
World Bank (2008a) Competitive Commercial Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa (CCAA) Study, World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank (2008b) World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development, World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank (2009) Awakening Africa's Sleeping Giant: Prospects for Commercial Agriculture in the Guinea Savannah Zone and Beyond, World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank (2010) Rising Global Interest in Farmland: Can it Yield Sustainable Benefits? World Bank, Washington, DC.
Berdegué, J.A. and Escobar, G. (2002) Rural Diversity, Agricultural Innovation Policies and Poverty Reduction [website], AgREN Network Paper 122, Overseas Development Institute, London, <http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=4275&title=agricultural-knowledge-information-systems-akis-rurallivelihood-diversity≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=4275&title=agricultural-knowledge-information-systems-akis-rurallivelihood-diversity
Brussaard, L., Caron, P., Campbell, B., Lipper, L., Mainka, S., Rabbinge, R., Babin, D., and Pulleman, M. (2010) ‘Reconciling biodiversity, conservation and food security: Scientific challenges for a new agriculture’, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2: 34-42.
Collier, P. and Dercon, S. (2009) ‘African agriculture in 50 years: Smallholders in a rapidly changing world?’ Conference Paper, How to Feed the World in 2050: Proceedings of a Technical Meeting of Experts, Rome, Italy, 24-26 June 2009.
de Janvry, A. (2009) ‘How to Feed the World 2050: FAO High-Level Expert Forum’ [website], <www.fao.org/wsfs/forum2050/wsfs-background-documents/hlef-presentations/en/≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. www.fao.org/wsfs/forum2050/wsfs-background-documents/hlef-presentations/en/
de Janvry, A. and Sadoulet, E. (2008) Agriculture for Development in Africa: Business-as-Usual or New Departures? [website], University of California at Berkeley, <http://are.berkeley.edu/~sadoulet/papers/Entebbe6-08.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://are.berkeley.edu/~sadoulet/papers/Entebbe6-08.pdf
de Koning, M. and de SteenhuijsenPiters, B. (2008) Farmers as Shareholders: A Close Look at Recent Experience, Royal Tropical Institute (KIT), Amsterdam.
De Schutter, O. (2009a) ‘Large-scale Land Acquisitions and Leases: A Set of Core Principles and Measures to Address the Human Rights Challenge’, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, UNHCR [website] <http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/food/docs/BriefingNotelandgrab.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/food/docs/BriefingNotelandgrab.pdf
De Schutter, O. (2009b) ‘Interim Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food’, presented to the 63rd Session of the United Nations General Assembly [website] <http://www.righttofood.org/new/PDF/A62289.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.righttofood.org/new/PDF/A62289.pdf
Elephant Pepper (2010) Case study presented at the Sustainable Spice Conference, Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 12 October 2010 [website], <http://www.kit.nl/spiceconference≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.kit.nl/spiceconference
FAO/WFP (2010) The State of Food Insecurity in the World: Addressing Food Security in Protracted Crises [website] <http://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/en/≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. http://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/en/
Grosskurth, J. (2010) Futures of Technology in Africa [website], STT (Study Centre for Technology Trends), The Hague <www.stt.nl/uploads/documents/192.pdf≯ [accessed 10 October 2011]. www.stt.nl/uploads/documents/192.pdf
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