Variability in traditional processing of gari: a major food security product from cassava
Aurelie Bechoff | Keith I. Tomlins | Ugo Chijioke | Paul Ilona | Ben Bennett | Andrew Westby | Erick Boy
Cassava is a major crop for food security in Nigeria and its principal processed form is gari. Gari processing practices were observed in the south-west (Oyo State) and south-east (Benue State) of Nigeria using two complementary approaches: 1) semi-quantitative surveys with processors (n = 123); and 2) actual detailed measurements at processing units (n = 7). Size of processing operations and types of practices differed significantly between the two states. There were also intra-state differences, influenced by ethnicity and customs. Variability of processing practices should be considered while seeking to improve processing productivity and introducing nutritious varieties of cassava to feed the fast-growing Nigerian population.Adebayo, K. (2009) ‘Dynamics of technology adoption in rural-based cassava processing enterprises in South-West Nigeria’, International Journal of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development 2: 15–24.
Adekanye, T., Ogunjimi, S. and Ajala, A. (2013) ‘An assessment of cassava processing plants in Irepodun local government areas, Kwara state, Nigeria’, World Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 14–17 <http://pubs.sciepub.com/wjar/1/1/4/>.
Adeoti, O., Ayelegun, T. and Oyewole, B. (2009) ‘Impact of gari consumption on the water resource of Nigeria’, African Journal of Biotechnology 8(25): 7283–9.
Akinrele, I. (1964) ‘Fermentation of cassava’, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 15: 589–94.
Amoah, R., Sam-Amoah, L., Boahen, C.A. and Duah, F. (2010) ‘Estimation of the material losses and gari recovery rate during the processing of varieties and ages of cassava into gari’, Asian Journal of Agricultural Research 4: 71–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3923/ajar.2010.71.79>.
Bechoff, A., Chijioke, U., Tomlins, K.I., Govinden, P., Ilona, P., Westby, A. and Boy, E. (2015) ‘Carotenoid stability during storage of yellow gari made from biofortified cassava or with palm oil’, Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 44: 36–44 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2015.06.002>.
Bechoff, A., Dhuique-Mayer, C., Dornier, M., Tomlins, K.I., Boulanger, R., Dufour, D. and Westby, A. (2010) ‘Relationship between the kinetics of β-carotene degradation and formation of norisoprenoids in the storage of dried sweet potato chips’, Food Chemistry 121: 348–57 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.12.035>.
Bechoff, A., Tomlins, K.I., Chijiokke, U., Ilona, P., Westby, A. and Boy, E. (2018) ‘Physical losses could partially explain modest carotenoid retention in dried food products from biofortified cassava’, PLoS One 13: e0194402 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194402>.
Da, G., Ferret, E., Marechal, P.-A., Le Thanh, M., Marouzé, C. and Dufour, D. (2010) ‘Modeling small-scale cassava starch extraction: simulation of the reduction of water consumption through a recycling process’, Process Biochemistry 45: 1837–42 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2010.05.001>.
Ekwe, K., Madu, T., Tokula, M., Ironkwe, A. and Okoro, B. (2009) ‘Factors influencing cassava-pulp fermentation period for gari processing among cassava processors in southeastern Nigeria’, Nigeria Agricultural Journal 40: 1–2 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/naj.v40i1-2.55514>.
Escobar, A., Dahdouh, L., Rondet, E., Ricci, J., Dufour, D., Tran, T., Cuq, B. and Delalonde, M. (2018) ‘Development of a novel integrated approach to monitor processing of cassava roots into gari: macroscopic and microscopic scales’, Food and Bioprocess Technology 11: 1370–80 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-018-2106-5>.
FAOStat (2018) Statistical database. Cassava production in 2016 [online], Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization <www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home> [accessed 31 May 2018].
Hongbété, F., Mestres, C., Akissoé, N., Pons, B., Hounhouigan, J.D., Cornet, D. and Nago, M. (2011) ‘Effects of cultivar and harvesting conditions (age, season) on the texture and taste of boiled cassava roots’, Food Chemistry 126: 127–33 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.10.088>.
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) (1990) Cassava in Tropical Africa: A Reference Manual, Ibadan, Nigeria: IITA.
Kawuki, R., Ferguson, M., Labuschagne, M., Herselman, L., Orone, J., Ralimanana, I., Bidiaka, M., Lukombo, S., Kanyange, M. and Gashaka, G. (2011) ‘Variation in qualitative and quantitative traits of cassava germplasm from selected national breeding programmes in sub-Saharan Africa’, Field Crops Research 122: 151–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2011.03.006>.
Matanmi, B.M., Afolabi, O., Komolafe, S.E. and Adefalu, L.L. (2017) ‘Impact of root and tuber expansion programme: the case of gari processors in Kwara State, Nigeria’, Agricultura Tropica et Subtropica 50: 109–14 <https://doi.org/10.1515/ats-2017-0012>.
Nago, C. (1995) La préparation artisanale du gari au Bénin: aspects technologiques et physico-chimiques. In ‘Transformation Alimentaire du Manioc.’ T. Agbor Egbe, A. Brauman, D. Griffon, S. Trèche (ed) pp. 475–493. Montpellier: ORSTOM.
Oguntoyinbo, F. (2008) ‘Evaluation of diversity of Candida species isolated from fermented cassava during traditional small scale gari production in Nigeria’, Food Control 19: 465–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2007.05.010>.
Ohimain, E.I., Silas-Olu, D.I. and Zipamoh, J.T. (2013) ‘Biowastes generation by small scale cassava processing centres in Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria’, Greener Journal of Environmental Management and Public Safety 2: 51–9.
Okorji, E.C., Eze, C. and Eze, V. (2003) ‘Efficiency of cassava processing techniques among rural women in Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria’, Journal of Agriculture and Social Research 3: 84–96 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jasr.v3i2.2797>.
Oluwole, O.S.A. (2008) ‘Cyanogenicity of cassava varieties and risk of exposure to cyanide from cassava food in Nigerian communities’, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 88: 962–9 <https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.3174>.
Onadipe, O.O. (2011) Total Carotenoid Content, Retention, Bioavailability and Consumer Acceptability of Gari from Bio-Fortified Cassava Roots, PhD thesis, Federal University of Abeokuta, Nigeria.
Oparinde, A., Banerji, A., Birol, E. and Ilona, P. (2016) ‘Information and consumer willingness to pay for biofortified yellow cassava: evidence from experimental auctions in Nigeria’, Agricultural Economics 47(2): 215–33.
Oparinde, A., Murekezi, A., Birol, E. and Katsvairo, L. (2017) Demand-Pull Creation, Public Officer’s Endorsement, and Consumer Willingness-To-Pay for Nutritious Iron Beans in Rural and Urban Rwanda, HarvestPlus Working Paper 26, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).
Oyewole, O. and Odunfa, S. (1991) ‘Characterisation of Lactobacilli in fermenting cassava and their evaluation as cassava starter cultures’, in A. Westby and P.J.A. Reilly (eds.), Traditional African Foods: Quality and Nutrition. Proceedings of a Regional Workshop held at Tanzania, Stockholm, Sweden: International Foundation for Science.
Phillips, T.P., Taylor, D.S., Sanni, L. and Akoroda, M.O. (2004) A Cassava Industrial Revolution in Nigeria: The Potential for a New Industrial Crop, Rome: IFAD-FAO.
Sanni, L., Akingbala, J., Oguntunde, A., Bainbridge, Z., Graffham, A. and Westby, A. (1999) ‘Processing of fufu from cassava in Nigeria: problems and prospects for development’, Science, Technology and Development 16(1): 58–71.
Ukenye, E., Ukpabi, U., Chijioke, U., Egesi, C. and Njoku, S. (2013) ‘Physicochemical, nutritional and processing properties of promising newly bred white and yellow fleshed cassava genotypes in Nigeria’, Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 12: 302–5 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3923/pjn.2013.302.305>.
Westby, A. (2002) ‘Cassava utilization, storage and small-scale processing’, in R.J. Hillocks, J.M. Thresh and A.C. Belloti (eds.), Cassava: Biology, Production and Utilization, pp. 281–300, Wallingford: CABI.
Adebayo, K. (2009) ‘Dynamics of technology adoption in rural-based cassava processing enterprises in South-West Nigeria’, International Journal of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development 2: 15–24.
Adekanye, T., Ogunjimi, S. and Ajala, A. (2013) ‘An assessment of cassava processing plants in Irepodun local government areas, Kwara state, Nigeria’, World Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 14–17 <http://pubs.sciepub.com/wjar/1/1/4/>.
Adeoti, O., Ayelegun, T. and Oyewole, B. (2009) ‘Impact of gari consumption on the water resource of Nigeria’, African Journal of Biotechnology 8(25): 7283–9.
Akinrele, I. (1964) ‘Fermentation of cassava’, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 15: 589–94.
Amoah, R., Sam-Amoah, L., Boahen, C.A. and Duah, F. (2010) ‘Estimation of the material losses and gari recovery rate during the processing of varieties and ages of cassava into gari’, Asian Journal of Agricultural Research 4: 71–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3923/ajar.2010.71.79>.
Bechoff, A., Chijioke, U., Tomlins, K.I., Govinden, P., Ilona, P., Westby, A. and Boy, E. (2015) ‘Carotenoid stability during storage of yellow gari made from biofortified cassava or with palm oil’, Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 44: 36–44 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2015.06.002>.
Bechoff, A., Dhuique-Mayer, C., Dornier, M., Tomlins, K.I., Boulanger, R., Dufour, D. and Westby, A. (2010) ‘Relationship between the kinetics of β-carotene degradation and formation of norisoprenoids in the storage of dried sweet potato chips’, Food Chemistry 121: 348–57 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.12.035>.
Bechoff, A., Tomlins, K.I., Chijiokke, U., Ilona, P., Westby, A. and Boy, E. (2018) ‘Physical losses could partially explain modest carotenoid retention in dried food products from biofortified cassava’, PLoS One 13: e0194402 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194402>.
Da, G., Ferret, E., Marechal, P.-A., Le Thanh, M., Marouzé, C. and Dufour, D. (2010) ‘Modeling small-scale cassava starch extraction: simulation of the reduction of water consumption through a recycling process’, Process Biochemistry 45: 1837–42 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2010.05.001>.
Ekwe, K., Madu, T., Tokula, M., Ironkwe, A. and Okoro, B. (2009) ‘Factors influencing cassava-pulp fermentation period for gari processing among cassava processors in southeastern Nigeria’, Nigeria Agricultural Journal 40: 1–2 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/naj.v40i1-2.55514>.
Escobar, A., Dahdouh, L., Rondet, E., Ricci, J., Dufour, D., Tran, T., Cuq, B. and Delalonde, M. (2018) ‘Development of a novel integrated approach to monitor processing of cassava roots into gari: macroscopic and microscopic scales’, Food and Bioprocess Technology 11: 1370–80 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-018-2106-5>.
FAOStat (2018) Statistical database. Cassava production in 2016 [online], Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization <www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home> [accessed 31 May 2018].
Hongbété, F., Mestres, C., Akissoé, N., Pons, B., Hounhouigan, J.D., Cornet, D. and Nago, M. (2011) ‘Effects of cultivar and harvesting conditions (age, season) on the texture and taste of boiled cassava roots’, Food Chemistry 126: 127–33 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.10.088>.
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) (1990) Cassava in Tropical Africa: A Reference Manual, Ibadan, Nigeria: IITA.
Kawuki, R., Ferguson, M., Labuschagne, M., Herselman, L., Orone, J., Ralimanana, I., Bidiaka, M., Lukombo, S., Kanyange, M. and Gashaka, G. (2011) ‘Variation in qualitative and quantitative traits of cassava germplasm from selected national breeding programmes in sub-Saharan Africa’, Field Crops Research 122: 151–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2011.03.006>.
Matanmi, B.M., Afolabi, O., Komolafe, S.E. and Adefalu, L.L. (2017) ‘Impact of root and tuber expansion programme: the case of gari processors in Kwara State, Nigeria’, Agricultura Tropica et Subtropica 50: 109–14 <https://doi.org/10.1515/ats-2017-0012>.
Nago, C. (1995) La préparation artisanale du gari au Bénin: aspects technologiques et physico-chimiques. In ‘Transformation Alimentaire du Manioc.’ T. Agbor Egbe, A. Brauman, D. Griffon, S. Trèche (ed) pp. 475–493. Montpellier: ORSTOM.
Oguntoyinbo, F. (2008) ‘Evaluation of diversity of Candida species isolated from fermented cassava during traditional small scale gari production in Nigeria’, Food Control 19: 465–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2007.05.010>.
Ohimain, E.I., Silas-Olu, D.I. and Zipamoh, J.T. (2013) ‘Biowastes generation by small scale cassava processing centres in Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria’, Greener Journal of Environmental Management and Public Safety 2: 51–9.
Okorji, E.C., Eze, C. and Eze, V. (2003) ‘Efficiency of cassava processing techniques among rural women in Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria’, Journal of Agriculture and Social Research 3: 84–96 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jasr.v3i2.2797>.
Oluwole, O.S.A. (2008) ‘Cyanogenicity of cassava varieties and risk of exposure to cyanide from cassava food in Nigerian communities’, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 88: 962–9 <https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.3174>.
Onadipe, O.O. (2011) Total Carotenoid Content, Retention, Bioavailability and Consumer Acceptability of Gari from Bio-Fortified Cassava Roots, PhD thesis, Federal University of Abeokuta, Nigeria.
Oparinde, A., Banerji, A., Birol, E. and Ilona, P. (2016) ‘Information and consumer willingness to pay for biofortified yellow cassava: evidence from experimental auctions in Nigeria’, Agricultural Economics 47(2): 215–33.
Oparinde, A., Murekezi, A., Birol, E. and Katsvairo, L. (2017) Demand-Pull Creation, Public Officer’s Endorsement, and Consumer Willingness-To-Pay for Nutritious Iron Beans in Rural and Urban Rwanda, HarvestPlus Working Paper 26, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).
Oyewole, O. and Odunfa, S. (1991) ‘Characterisation of Lactobacilli in fermenting cassava and their evaluation as cassava starter cultures’, in A. Westby and P.J.A. Reilly (eds.), Traditional African Foods: Quality and Nutrition. Proceedings of a Regional Workshop held at Tanzania, Stockholm, Sweden: International Foundation for Science.
Phillips, T.P., Taylor, D.S., Sanni, L. and Akoroda, M.O. (2004) A Cassava Industrial Revolution in Nigeria: The Potential for a New Industrial Crop, Rome: IFAD-FAO.
Sanni, L., Akingbala, J., Oguntunde, A., Bainbridge, Z., Graffham, A. and Westby, A. (1999) ‘Processing of fufu from cassava in Nigeria: problems and prospects for development’, Science, Technology and Development 16(1): 58–71.
Ukenye, E., Ukpabi, U., Chijioke, U., Egesi, C. and Njoku, S. (2013) ‘Physicochemical, nutritional and processing properties of promising newly bred white and yellow fleshed cassava genotypes in Nigeria’, Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 12: 302–5 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3923/pjn.2013.302.305>.
Westby, A. (2002) ‘Cassava utilization, storage and small-scale processing’, in R.J. Hillocks, J.M. Thresh and A.C. Belloti (eds.), Cassava: Biology, Production and Utilization, pp. 281–300, Wallingford: CABI.
Adebayo, K. (2009) ‘Dynamics of technology adoption in rural-based cassava processing enterprises in South-West Nigeria’, International Journal of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development 2: 15–24.
Adekanye, T., Ogunjimi, S. and Ajala, A. (2013) ‘An assessment of cassava processing plants in Irepodun local government areas, Kwara state, Nigeria’, World Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 14–17 <http://pubs.sciepub.com/wjar/1/1/4/>.
Adeoti, O., Ayelegun, T. and Oyewole, B. (2009) ‘Impact of gari consumption on the water resource of Nigeria’, African Journal of Biotechnology 8(25): 7283–9.
Akinrele, I. (1964) ‘Fermentation of cassava’, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 15: 589–94.
Amoah, R., Sam-Amoah, L., Boahen, C.A. and Duah, F. (2010) ‘Estimation of the material losses and gari recovery rate during the processing of varieties and ages of cassava into gari’, Asian Journal of Agricultural Research 4: 71–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3923/ajar.2010.71.79>.
Bechoff, A., Chijioke, U., Tomlins, K.I., Govinden, P., Ilona, P., Westby, A. and Boy, E. (2015) ‘Carotenoid stability during storage of yellow gari made from biofortified cassava or with palm oil’, Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 44: 36–44 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2015.06.002>.
Bechoff, A., Dhuique-Mayer, C., Dornier, M., Tomlins, K.I., Boulanger, R., Dufour, D. and Westby, A. (2010) ‘Relationship between the kinetics of β-carotene degradation and formation of norisoprenoids in the storage of dried sweet potato chips’, Food Chemistry 121: 348–57 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.12.035>.
Bechoff, A., Tomlins, K.I., Chijiokke, U., Ilona, P., Westby, A. and Boy, E. (2018) ‘Physical losses could partially explain modest carotenoid retention in dried food products from biofortified cassava’, PLoS One 13: e0194402 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194402>.
Da, G., Ferret, E., Marechal, P.-A., Le Thanh, M., Marouzé, C. and Dufour, D. (2010) ‘Modeling small-scale cassava starch extraction: simulation of the reduction of water consumption through a recycling process’, Process Biochemistry 45: 1837–42 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2010.05.001>.
Ekwe, K., Madu, T., Tokula, M., Ironkwe, A. and Okoro, B. (2009) ‘Factors influencing cassava-pulp fermentation period for gari processing among cassava processors in southeastern Nigeria’, Nigeria Agricultural Journal 40: 1–2 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/naj.v40i1-2.55514>.
Escobar, A., Dahdouh, L., Rondet, E., Ricci, J., Dufour, D., Tran, T., Cuq, B. and Delalonde, M. (2018) ‘Development of a novel integrated approach to monitor processing of cassava roots into gari: macroscopic and microscopic scales’, Food and Bioprocess Technology 11: 1370–80 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-018-2106-5>.
FAOStat (2018) Statistical database. Cassava production in 2016 [online], Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization <www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home> [accessed 31 May 2018].
Hongbété, F., Mestres, C., Akissoé, N., Pons, B., Hounhouigan, J.D., Cornet, D. and Nago, M. (2011) ‘Effects of cultivar and harvesting conditions (age, season) on the texture and taste of boiled cassava roots’, Food Chemistry 126: 127–33 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.10.088>.
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) (1990) Cassava in Tropical Africa: A Reference Manual, Ibadan, Nigeria: IITA.
Kawuki, R., Ferguson, M., Labuschagne, M., Herselman, L., Orone, J., Ralimanana, I., Bidiaka, M., Lukombo, S., Kanyange, M. and Gashaka, G. (2011) ‘Variation in qualitative and quantitative traits of cassava germplasm from selected national breeding programmes in sub-Saharan Africa’, Field Crops Research 122: 151–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2011.03.006>.
Matanmi, B.M., Afolabi, O., Komolafe, S.E. and Adefalu, L.L. (2017) ‘Impact of root and tuber expansion programme: the case of gari processors in Kwara State, Nigeria’, Agricultura Tropica et Subtropica 50: 109–14 <https://doi.org/10.1515/ats-2017-0012>.
Nago, C. (1995) La préparation artisanale du gari au Bénin: aspects technologiques et physico-chimiques. In ‘Transformation Alimentaire du Manioc.’ T. Agbor Egbe, A. Brauman, D. Griffon, S. Trèche (ed) pp. 475–493. Montpellier: ORSTOM.
Oguntoyinbo, F. (2008) ‘Evaluation of diversity of Candida species isolated from fermented cassava during traditional small scale gari production in Nigeria’, Food Control 19: 465–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2007.05.010>.
Ohimain, E.I., Silas-Olu, D.I. and Zipamoh, J.T. (2013) ‘Biowastes generation by small scale cassava processing centres in Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State, Nigeria’, Greener Journal of Environmental Management and Public Safety 2: 51–9.
Okorji, E.C., Eze, C. and Eze, V. (2003) ‘Efficiency of cassava processing techniques among rural women in Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria’, Journal of Agriculture and Social Research 3: 84–96 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jasr.v3i2.2797>.
Oluwole, O.S.A. (2008) ‘Cyanogenicity of cassava varieties and risk of exposure to cyanide from cassava food in Nigerian communities’, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 88: 962–9 <https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.3174>.
Onadipe, O.O. (2011) Total Carotenoid Content, Retention, Bioavailability and Consumer Acceptability of Gari from Bio-Fortified Cassava Roots, PhD thesis, Federal University of Abeokuta, Nigeria.
Oparinde, A., Banerji, A., Birol, E. and Ilona, P. (2016) ‘Information and consumer willingness to pay for biofortified yellow cassava: evidence from experimental auctions in Nigeria’, Agricultural Economics 47(2): 215–33.
Oparinde, A., Murekezi, A., Birol, E. and Katsvairo, L. (2017) Demand-Pull Creation, Public Officer’s Endorsement, and Consumer Willingness-To-Pay for Nutritious Iron Beans in Rural and Urban Rwanda, HarvestPlus Working Paper 26, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).
Oyewole, O. and Odunfa, S. (1991) ‘Characterisation of Lactobacilli in fermenting cassava and their evaluation as cassava starter cultures’, in A. Westby and P.J.A. Reilly (eds.), Traditional African Foods: Quality and Nutrition. Proceedings of a Regional Workshop held at Tanzania, Stockholm, Sweden: International Foundation for Science.
Phillips, T.P., Taylor, D.S., Sanni, L. and Akoroda, M.O. (2004) A Cassava Industrial Revolution in Nigeria: The Potential for a New Industrial Crop, Rome: IFAD-FAO.
Sanni, L., Akingbala, J., Oguntunde, A., Bainbridge, Z., Graffham, A. and Westby, A. (1999) ‘Processing of fufu from cassava in Nigeria: problems and prospects for development’, Science, Technology and Development 16(1): 58–71.
Ukenye, E., Ukpabi, U., Chijioke, U., Egesi, C. and Njoku, S. (2013) ‘Physicochemical, nutritional and processing properties of promising newly bred white and yellow fleshed cassava genotypes in Nigeria’, Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 12: 302–5 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3923/pjn.2013.302.305>.
Westby, A. (2002) ‘Cassava utilization, storage and small-scale processing’, in R.J. Hillocks, J.M. Thresh and A.C. Belloti (eds.), Cassava: Biology, Production and Utilization, pp. 281–300, Wallingford: CABI.
Adebayo, K. (2009) ‘Dynamics of technology adoption in rural-based cassava processing enterprises in South-West Nigeria’, International Journal of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development 2: 15–24.
Adekanye, T., Ogunjimi, S. and Ajala, A. (2013) ‘An assessment of cassava processing plants in Irepodun local government areas, Kwara state, Nigeria’, World Journal of Agricultural Research 1: 14–17 <http://pubs.sciepub.com/wjar/1/1/4/>.
Adeoti, O., Ayelegun, T. and Oyewole, B. (2009) ‘Impact of gari consumption on the water resource of Nigeria’, African Journal of Biotechnology 8(25): 7283–9.
Akinrele, I. (1964) ‘Fermentation of cassava’, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 15: 589–94.
Amoah, R., Sam-Amoah, L., Boahen, C.A. and Duah, F. (2010) ‘Estimation of the material losses and gari recovery rate during the processing of varieties and ages of cassava into gari’, Asian Journal of Agricultural Research 4: 71–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3923/ajar.2010.71.79>.
Bechoff, A., Chijioke, U., Tomlins, K.I., Govinden, P., Ilona, P., Westby, A. and Boy, E. (2015) ‘Carotenoid stability during storage of yellow gari made from biofortified cassava or with palm oil’, Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 44: 36–44 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2015.06.002>.
Bechoff, A., Dhuique-Mayer, C., Dornier, M., Tomlins, K.I., Boulanger, R., Dufour, D. and Westby, A. (2010) ‘Relationship between the kinetics of β-carotene degradation and formation of norisoprenoids in the storage of dried sweet potato chips’, Food Chemistry 121: 348–57 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.12.035>.
Bechoff, A., Tomlins, K.I., Chijiokke, U., Ilona, P., Westby, A. and Boy, E. (2018) ‘Physical losses could partially explain modest carotenoid retention in dried food products from biofortified cassava’, PLoS One 13: e0194402 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194402>.
Da, G., Ferret, E., Marechal, P.-A., Le Thanh, M., Marouzé, C. and Dufour, D. (2010) ‘Modeling small-scale cassava starch extraction: simulation of the reduction of water consumption through a recycling process’, Process Biochemistry 45: 1837–42 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2010.05.001>.
Ekwe, K., Madu, T., Tokula, M., Ironkwe, A. and Okoro, B. (2009) ‘Factors influencing cassava-pulp fermentation period for gari processing among cassava processors in southeastern Nigeria’, Nigeria Agricultural Journal 40: 1–2 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/naj.v40i1-2.55514>.
Escobar, A., Dahdouh, L., Rondet, E., Ricci, J., Dufour, D., Tran, T., Cuq, B. and Delalonde, M. (2018) ‘Development of a novel integrated approach to monitor processing of cassava roots into gari: macroscopic and microscopic scales’, Food and Bioprocess Technology 11: 1370–80 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-018-2106-5>.
FAOStat (2018) Statistical database. Cassava production in 2016 [online], Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization <www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home> [accessed 31 May 2018].
Hongbété, F., Mestres, C., Akissoé, N., Pons, B., Hounhouigan, J.D., Cornet, D. and Nago, M. (2011) ‘Effects of cultivar and harvesting conditions (age, season) on the texture and taste of boiled cassava roots’, Food Chemistry 126: 127–33 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.10.088>.
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) (1990) Cassava in Tropical Africa: A Reference Manual, Ibadan, Nigeria: IITA.
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