This paper assesses women’s agency and its influence on technology adoption in agriculture. In undertaking the study, data was sourced from CARE Pathways Programme 2013 Annual Review Studies in Tanzania and Malawi. The cohort technique was used to select a sample of 149 female respondents from both female- and male-headed households. Using a probit regression model, the study found a significant and positive relationship between high agency and knowledge on gender issues, positive perception of gender roles, and farm size. In contrast, access to a broad range of information sources and belonging to female-headed households enhance the likelihood of low agency. Using the OLS regression model, the study reveals a positive and significant relationship between women’s agency and adoption of production technologies. This implies that interventions to enhance adoption of agricultural technologies among rural women must aim at building their capabilities to take purposeful actions.

Alkire, S. (2007) ‘Measuring agency: issues and possibilities’, Indian Journal of Human Development 1(1): 169–75.

Alkire, S., Meinzen-Dick, R., Peterman, A., Quisumbing, A., Seymour, G. and Vaz, A. (2013) ‘The women’s empowerment in agriculture index’, World Development 52: 71–91.

Alsop, R., Bertelsen, M.F. and Holland, J. (2006) Empowerment in Practice: From Analysis to Implementation [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/6980> [accessed 20 January 2017].

Anderson, C.L., Reynolds, T.W. and Gugerty, M.K. (2017) ‘Husband and wife perspectives on farm household decision-making authority and evidence on intra-household accord in rural Tanzania’, World Development 90: 169–83 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.09.005>.

Asfaw, A. and Admassie, A. (2004) ‘The role of education on the adoption of chemical fertilizer under different socioeconomic environments in Ethiopia’, Agricultural Economics 30(3): 215–28 <https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2004.tb00190.x>.

Asfaw, S., Shiferaw, B., Simtowe, F. and Lipper, L. (2012) ‘Impact of modern agricultural technologies on smallholder welfare: evidence from Tanzania and Ethiopia’, Journal of Food Policy 37(3): 283–95 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.02.013>.

Bonnard, P. and Scherr, S. (1994) ‘Within gender differences in tree management: is gender distinction a reliable concept?’ Agroforestry Systems 25(2): 71–93.

Boucher, S.R., Carter, M.R. and Guirkinger, C. (2008) ‘Risk rationing and wealth effects in credit markets: theory and implications for agricultural development’, American Journal of Agricultural Economics 90(2): 409–23.

CARE US (2013) The Farmer Field and Business School: A Pathways Programming Approach <www.care.org/sites/default/files/documents/AG-2013-FFBS-Pathways-Innovation-Brief.pdf> [accessed 02 December 2013].

Doss, C. (2014) ‘If women hold up half the sky, how much of the world’s food do they produce?’ in A.R. Quisumbing, R. Meinzen-Dick, T.L. Raney, A. Croppenstedt, J.A. Behrman, and A. Peterman (eds.), Gender in Agriculture: Closing the Knowledge Gap, pp. 69–88, Dordrecht: Springer.

Ellis, A., Blackden, M., Cutura, J., MacCulloch, F. and Seebens, H. (2007) Gender and Economic Growth in Tanzania, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Feed the Future (2011) Women and Agriculture Increasing Global Food Security [pdf], Feed the Future and the Bureau of Public Affairs, US Department of State <https://feedthefuture.gov/sites/default/files/resource/files/Clinton%20Women%20and%20Agriculture%20report.pdf> [accessed 14 July 2018].

Food and Agriculture Organizations (FAO) (2011) The State of Food and Agriculture – Closing the Gender Gap [pdf], Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e.pdf> [accessed 10 June 2012].

Forsythe, L., Posthumus, H. and Martin, A. (2016) ‘A crop of one’s own? Women’s experiences of cassava commercialization in Nigeria and Malawi’, Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security 1(2): 110–28.

Gitonga, Z.M., De Groote, H., Kassie, M. and Tefera, T. (2013) ‘Impact of metal silos on households’ maize storage, storage losses and food security: an application of propensity score matching’, Food Policy 43: 44–5 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2013.08.005>.

Hirschmann, D. and Vaughan, M. (1983) ‘Source food production and income generation in a matrilineal society: rural women in Zomba, Malawi’, Journal of Southern African Studies 10(1): 86–99.

Humphries, S., Classen, L., Jimenez, J., Sierra, F., Gallardo, O. and Gomez, M. (2012) ‘Opening cracks for the transgression of social boundaries: an evaluation of the gender impacts of farmer research teams in Honduras’, World Development 40(10): 2078–95 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.05.008>.

Jack, K. and Tobias, J. (2017) Seeding Success: Increasing Agricultural Technology Adoption through Information, IGC Growth Brief Series 012, London: International Growth Centre.

Kabeer, N. (1999) ‘Resources, agency, achievements: reflections on the measurement of women’s empowerment’, Development and Change 30(3): 435–64.

Kabeer, N. (2001) ‘Conflicts over credit: re-evaluating the empowerment potential of loans to women in rural Bangladesh’, World Development 29(1): 63–84.

Kerr, R.B., Snapp, S., Chirwa, M., Shumba, L. and Msachi, R. (2007) ‘Participatory research on legume diversification with Malawian smallholder farmers for improved human nutrition and soil fertility’, Experimental Agriculture 43(4): 437–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0014479707005339>.

Luttrell, C., Quiroz, S., Scrutton, C. and Bird, K. (2009) Understanding and Operationalising Empowerment [pdf], Working Paper 308, London: Overseas Development Institute (ODI) <https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/5500.pdf> [accessed 12 January 2017].

Maleko, G.N., Liheta, B.S.A., Aikaruwa, D., Lukas, A. and Sumari, G.A. (2013) ‘Women participation in microfinance institutions of Tanzania: the case of savings and credit co-operative societies (SACCOS)’, Journal of Business Administration and Education 4(2): 139–75.

Manfre, C., Rubin, D., Allen, A., Summerfield, G., Colverson, K. and Akeredolu, M. (2013) Reducing the Gender Gap in Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services [online], MEAS Discussion Paper, Washington, DC: Cultural Practice <https://agrilinks.org/sites/default/files/resource/files/MEAS%20Discussion%20Paper%202%20-%20Gender%20and%20Extension%20-%202013_04_01_0_0.pdf> [accessed 19 December 2016].

Meinzen-Dick, R., Johnson, N., Quisumbing, A., Njuki, J., Behrman, J., Rubin, D., Peterman, A. and Waitanji, E. (2011) Gender, Assets, and Agricultural Development Programs: A Conceptual Framework, CAPRi Working Paper No. 99, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute <http://dx.doi.org/10.2499/CAPRiWP99>.

Miller, G. and Mobarak, A.M. (2013) Gender Differences in Preferences, Intra-household Externalities, and the Low Demand for Improved Cookstoves [pdf], NBER Working Paper 18964, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research <https://www.povertyactionlab.org/sites/default/files/publications/stove_long.pdf> [accessed 5 November 2016].

Mnenwa, R. and Maliti, E. (2010) A Comparative Analysis of Poverty Incidence in Farming Systems of Tanzania [pdf], Special Paper 10/4, Dar es Salaam: Research on Poverty Alleviation (REPOA) <www.repoa.or.tz/documents/10-4_web-1.pdf> [accessed 17 July 2018].

Njuki, J., Kaaria, S., Chamunorwa, A. and Chiuri, W. (2011) ‘Linking smallholder farmers to markets, gender and intra-household dynamics: does the choice of commodity matter?’ The European Journal of Development Research 23(3): 426–43 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2011.8>.

Nussbaum, M.C. (2011) Creating Capabilities [pdf], Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press <https://www3.nd.edu/~ndlaw/prog-human-rights/london-symposium/CreatingCapabilities.pdf> [accessed 10 June 2016].

Peterman, A., Behrman, J.A. and Quisumbing, A.R. (2010) A Review of Empirical Evidence on Gender Differences in Nonland Agricultural Inputs, Technology, and Services in Developing Countries, IFPRI Discussion Paper 00975, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.

Ragasa, C. (2012) ‘Gender and institutional dimensions of agricultural technology adoption: a review of literature and synthesis of 35 case studies’, selected poster prepared for presentation at the International Association of Agricultural Economists (IAAE) Triennial Conference, The Global Bio-Economy, 18–24 August 2012, Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil.

Rose, L.L. (2002) ‘Women’s strategies for customary land access in Swaziland and Malawi: a comparative study’, Africa Today 49(2): 123–49.

Samman, E. and Santos, M.E. (2009) ‘Agency and Empowerment: A Review of Concepts, Indicators and Empirical Evidence’, background paper prepared for Human Development Report in Latin America and the Caribbean, Oxford: Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative, Oxford University.

Schuler, S.R., Hashemi, S.M., Riley, A.P. and Akhter, A. (1996) ‘Credit programs, patriarchy and men’s violence against women in rural Bangladesh’, Social Science and Medicine 43(12): 1729–42.

Sen, A.K. (1999) Development as Freedom, New York: Knopf.

Shayo, R. and Martin, A. (2009) Gender and Diversity Situational Analysis: Tanzania Country Report [pdf], London: Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich <http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.718.6269&rep=rep1&type=pdf> [accessed 10 June 2016].

Snapp, S.S. and Silim, S.N. (2002) ‘Farmer preferences and legume intensification for low nutrient environments’, Plant and Soil Science 245: 181–92 <https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020658715648>.

State of Food and Agriculture (SOFA) and Doss, C. (2011) The Role of Women in Agriculture, ESA Working Paper No. 11-02, Rome: FAO.

Stevenson, L. and St-Onge, A. (2005) Support for Growth-oriented Women Entrepreneurs in Ethiopia [pdf], Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Organizations <www.microfinancegateway.org/sites/default/files/mfg-en-paper-support-for-growth-oriented-women-entrepreneurs-in-ethiopia-2005.pdf> [accessed 28 November 2016].

Tenge, A.J., De Graaff, J. and Hella, J.P. (2004) ‘Social and economic factors affecting the adoption of soil and water conservation in West Usambara highlands, Tanzania’, Land Degradation and Development 15(2): 99–114 <https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.606>.

Tulahi, C. and Hingi, P.M. (2006) ‘Agrarian reform and rural development in Tanzania’, paper presented at the International Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development, 7–10 March, Porto Alegre, Brazil.

UN Women (2016) Women and Climate Resilient Agriculture Flagship for Malawi <https://trainingcentre.unwomen.org/pluginfile.php/66830/mod_folder/content/0/Women%20and%20Climate%20Resilient%20Agriculture%20flagship%20for%20Malawi%20October%202016.pdf?forcedownload=1> [accessed 26 January 2017].

William, J.G. and Kaserwa, N. (2015) ‘Improving smallholder farmers’ access to finance through warehouse receipt system in Tanzania’, International Journal of Economics and Financial Research 1(3): 41–9.

World Bank (2009) Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Alkire, S. (2007) ‘Measuring agency: issues and possibilities’, Indian Journal of Human Development 1(1): 169–75.

Alkire, S., Meinzen-Dick, R., Peterman, A., Quisumbing, A., Seymour, G. and Vaz, A. (2013) ‘The women’s empowerment in agriculture index’, World Development 52: 71–91.

Alsop, R., Bertelsen, M.F. and Holland, J. (2006) Empowerment in Practice: From Analysis to Implementation [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/6980> [accessed 20 January 2017].

Anderson, C.L., Reynolds, T.W. and Gugerty, M.K. (2017) ‘Husband and wife perspectives on farm household decision-making authority and evidence on intra-household accord in rural Tanzania’, World Development 90: 169–83 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.09.005>.

Asfaw, A. and Admassie, A. (2004) ‘The role of education on the adoption of chemical fertilizer under different socioeconomic environments in Ethiopia’, Agricultural Economics 30(3): 215–28 <https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2004.tb00190.x>.

Asfaw, S., Shiferaw, B., Simtowe, F. and Lipper, L. (2012) ‘Impact of modern agricultural technologies on smallholder welfare: evidence from Tanzania and Ethiopia’, Journal of Food Policy 37(3): 283–95 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.02.013>.

Bonnard, P. and Scherr, S. (1994) ‘Within gender differences in tree management: is gender distinction a reliable concept?’ Agroforestry Systems 25(2): 71–93.

Boucher, S.R., Carter, M.R. and Guirkinger, C. (2008) ‘Risk rationing and wealth effects in credit markets: theory and implications for agricultural development’, American Journal of Agricultural Economics 90(2): 409–23.

CARE US (2013) The Farmer Field and Business School: A Pathways Programming Approach <www.care.org/sites/default/files/documents/AG-2013-FFBS-Pathways-Innovation-Brief.pdf> [accessed 02 December 2013].

Doss, C. (2014) ‘If women hold up half the sky, how much of the world’s food do they produce?’ in A.R. Quisumbing, R. Meinzen-Dick, T.L. Raney, A. Croppenstedt, J.A. Behrman, and A. Peterman (eds.), Gender in Agriculture: Closing the Knowledge Gap, pp. 69–88, Dordrecht: Springer.

Ellis, A., Blackden, M., Cutura, J., MacCulloch, F. and Seebens, H. (2007) Gender and Economic Growth in Tanzania, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Feed the Future (2011) Women and Agriculture Increasing Global Food Security [pdf], Feed the Future and the Bureau of Public Affairs, US Department of State <https://feedthefuture.gov/sites/default/files/resource/files/Clinton%20Women%20and%20Agriculture%20report.pdf> [accessed 14 July 2018].

Food and Agriculture Organizations (FAO) (2011) The State of Food and Agriculture – Closing the Gender Gap [pdf], Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e.pdf> [accessed 10 June 2012].

Forsythe, L., Posthumus, H. and Martin, A. (2016) ‘A crop of one’s own? Women’s experiences of cassava commercialization in Nigeria and Malawi’, Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security 1(2): 110–28.

Gitonga, Z.M., De Groote, H., Kassie, M. and Tefera, T. (2013) ‘Impact of metal silos on households’ maize storage, storage losses and food security: an application of propensity score matching’, Food Policy 43: 44–5 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2013.08.005>.

Hirschmann, D. and Vaughan, M. (1983) ‘Source food production and income generation in a matrilineal society: rural women in Zomba, Malawi’, Journal of Southern African Studies 10(1): 86–99.

Humphries, S., Classen, L., Jimenez, J., Sierra, F., Gallardo, O. and Gomez, M. (2012) ‘Opening cracks for the transgression of social boundaries: an evaluation of the gender impacts of farmer research teams in Honduras’, World Development 40(10): 2078–95 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.05.008>.

Jack, K. and Tobias, J. (2017) Seeding Success: Increasing Agricultural Technology Adoption through Information, IGC Growth Brief Series 012, London: International Growth Centre.

Kabeer, N. (1999) ‘Resources, agency, achievements: reflections on the measurement of women’s empowerment’, Development and Change 30(3): 435–64.

Kabeer, N. (2001) ‘Conflicts over credit: re-evaluating the empowerment potential of loans to women in rural Bangladesh’, World Development 29(1): 63–84.

Kerr, R.B., Snapp, S., Chirwa, M., Shumba, L. and Msachi, R. (2007) ‘Participatory research on legume diversification with Malawian smallholder farmers for improved human nutrition and soil fertility’, Experimental Agriculture 43(4): 437–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0014479707005339>.

Luttrell, C., Quiroz, S., Scrutton, C. and Bird, K. (2009) Understanding and Operationalising Empowerment [pdf], Working Paper 308, London: Overseas Development Institute (ODI) <https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/5500.pdf> [accessed 12 January 2017].

Maleko, G.N., Liheta, B.S.A., Aikaruwa, D., Lukas, A. and Sumari, G.A. (2013) ‘Women participation in microfinance institutions of Tanzania: the case of savings and credit co-operative societies (SACCOS)’, Journal of Business Administration and Education 4(2): 139–75.

Manfre, C., Rubin, D., Allen, A., Summerfield, G., Colverson, K. and Akeredolu, M. (2013) Reducing the Gender Gap in Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services [online], MEAS Discussion Paper, Washington, DC: Cultural Practice <https://agrilinks.org/sites/default/files/resource/files/MEAS%20Discussion%20Paper%202%20-%20Gender%20and%20Extension%20-%202013_04_01_0_0.pdf> [accessed 19 December 2016].

Meinzen-Dick, R., Johnson, N., Quisumbing, A., Njuki, J., Behrman, J., Rubin, D., Peterman, A. and Waitanji, E. (2011) Gender, Assets, and Agricultural Development Programs: A Conceptual Framework, CAPRi Working Paper No. 99, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute <http://dx.doi.org/10.2499/CAPRiWP99>.

Miller, G. and Mobarak, A.M. (2013) Gender Differences in Preferences, Intra-household Externalities, and the Low Demand for Improved Cookstoves [pdf], NBER Working Paper 18964, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research <https://www.povertyactionlab.org/sites/default/files/publications/stove_long.pdf> [accessed 5 November 2016].

Mnenwa, R. and Maliti, E. (2010) A Comparative Analysis of Poverty Incidence in Farming Systems of Tanzania [pdf], Special Paper 10/4, Dar es Salaam: Research on Poverty Alleviation (REPOA) <www.repoa.or.tz/documents/10-4_web-1.pdf> [accessed 17 July 2018].

Njuki, J., Kaaria, S., Chamunorwa, A. and Chiuri, W. (2011) ‘Linking smallholder farmers to markets, gender and intra-household dynamics: does the choice of commodity matter?’ The European Journal of Development Research 23(3): 426–43 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2011.8>.

Nussbaum, M.C. (2011) Creating Capabilities [pdf], Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press <https://www3.nd.edu/~ndlaw/prog-human-rights/london-symposium/CreatingCapabilities.pdf> [accessed 10 June 2016].

Peterman, A., Behrman, J.A. and Quisumbing, A.R. (2010) A Review of Empirical Evidence on Gender Differences in Nonland Agricultural Inputs, Technology, and Services in Developing Countries, IFPRI Discussion Paper 00975, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.

Ragasa, C. (2012) ‘Gender and institutional dimensions of agricultural technology adoption: a review of literature and synthesis of 35 case studies’, selected poster prepared for presentation at the International Association of Agricultural Economists (IAAE) Triennial Conference, The Global Bio-Economy, 18–24 August 2012, Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil.

Rose, L.L. (2002) ‘Women’s strategies for customary land access in Swaziland and Malawi: a comparative study’, Africa Today 49(2): 123–49.

Samman, E. and Santos, M.E. (2009) ‘Agency and Empowerment: A Review of Concepts, Indicators and Empirical Evidence’, background paper prepared for Human Development Report in Latin America and the Caribbean, Oxford: Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative, Oxford University.

Schuler, S.R., Hashemi, S.M., Riley, A.P. and Akhter, A. (1996) ‘Credit programs, patriarchy and men’s violence against women in rural Bangladesh’, Social Science and Medicine 43(12): 1729–42.

Sen, A.K. (1999) Development as Freedom, New York: Knopf.

Shayo, R. and Martin, A. (2009) Gender and Diversity Situational Analysis: Tanzania Country Report [pdf], London: Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich <http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.718.6269&rep=rep1&type=pdf> [accessed 10 June 2016].

Snapp, S.S. and Silim, S.N. (2002) ‘Farmer preferences and legume intensification for low nutrient environments’, Plant and Soil Science 245: 181–92 <https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020658715648>.

State of Food and Agriculture (SOFA) and Doss, C. (2011) The Role of Women in Agriculture, ESA Working Paper No. 11-02, Rome: FAO.

Stevenson, L. and St-Onge, A. (2005) Support for Growth-oriented Women Entrepreneurs in Ethiopia [pdf], Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Organizations <www.microfinancegateway.org/sites/default/files/mfg-en-paper-support-for-growth-oriented-women-entrepreneurs-in-ethiopia-2005.pdf> [accessed 28 November 2016].

Tenge, A.J., De Graaff, J. and Hella, J.P. (2004) ‘Social and economic factors affecting the adoption of soil and water conservation in West Usambara highlands, Tanzania’, Land Degradation and Development 15(2): 99–114 <https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.606>.

Tulahi, C. and Hingi, P.M. (2006) ‘Agrarian reform and rural development in Tanzania’, paper presented at the International Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development, 7–10 March, Porto Alegre, Brazil.

UN Women (2016) Women and Climate Resilient Agriculture Flagship for Malawi <https://trainingcentre.unwomen.org/pluginfile.php/66830/mod_folder/content/0/Women%20and%20Climate%20Resilient%20Agriculture%20flagship%20for%20Malawi%20October%202016.pdf?forcedownload=1> [accessed 26 January 2017].

William, J.G. and Kaserwa, N. (2015) ‘Improving smallholder farmers’ access to finance through warehouse receipt system in Tanzania’, International Journal of Economics and Financial Research 1(3): 41–9.

World Bank (2009) Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Alkire, S. (2007) ‘Measuring agency: issues and possibilities’, Indian Journal of Human Development 1(1): 169–75.

Alkire, S., Meinzen-Dick, R., Peterman, A., Quisumbing, A., Seymour, G. and Vaz, A. (2013) ‘The women’s empowerment in agriculture index’, World Development 52: 71–91.

Alsop, R., Bertelsen, M.F. and Holland, J. (2006) Empowerment in Practice: From Analysis to Implementation [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/6980> [accessed 20 January 2017].

Anderson, C.L., Reynolds, T.W. and Gugerty, M.K. (2017) ‘Husband and wife perspectives on farm household decision-making authority and evidence on intra-household accord in rural Tanzania’, World Development 90: 169–83 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.09.005>.

Asfaw, A. and Admassie, A. (2004) ‘The role of education on the adoption of chemical fertilizer under different socioeconomic environments in Ethiopia’, Agricultural Economics 30(3): 215–28 <https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2004.tb00190.x>.

Asfaw, S., Shiferaw, B., Simtowe, F. and Lipper, L. (2012) ‘Impact of modern agricultural technologies on smallholder welfare: evidence from Tanzania and Ethiopia’, Journal of Food Policy 37(3): 283–95 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.02.013>.

Bonnard, P. and Scherr, S. (1994) ‘Within gender differences in tree management: is gender distinction a reliable concept?’ Agroforestry Systems 25(2): 71–93.

Boucher, S.R., Carter, M.R. and Guirkinger, C. (2008) ‘Risk rationing and wealth effects in credit markets: theory and implications for agricultural development’, American Journal of Agricultural Economics 90(2): 409–23.

CARE US (2013) The Farmer Field and Business School: A Pathways Programming Approach <www.care.org/sites/default/files/documents/AG-2013-FFBS-Pathways-Innovation-Brief.pdf> [accessed 02 December 2013].

Doss, C. (2014) ‘If women hold up half the sky, how much of the world’s food do they produce?’ in A.R. Quisumbing, R. Meinzen-Dick, T.L. Raney, A. Croppenstedt, J.A. Behrman, and A. Peterman (eds.), Gender in Agriculture: Closing the Knowledge Gap, pp. 69–88, Dordrecht: Springer.

Ellis, A., Blackden, M., Cutura, J., MacCulloch, F. and Seebens, H. (2007) Gender and Economic Growth in Tanzania, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Feed the Future (2011) Women and Agriculture Increasing Global Food Security [pdf], Feed the Future and the Bureau of Public Affairs, US Department of State <https://feedthefuture.gov/sites/default/files/resource/files/Clinton%20Women%20and%20Agriculture%20report.pdf> [accessed 14 July 2018].

Food and Agriculture Organizations (FAO) (2011) The State of Food and Agriculture – Closing the Gender Gap [pdf], Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e.pdf> [accessed 10 June 2012].

Forsythe, L., Posthumus, H. and Martin, A. (2016) ‘A crop of one’s own? Women’s experiences of cassava commercialization in Nigeria and Malawi’, Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security 1(2): 110–28.

Gitonga, Z.M., De Groote, H., Kassie, M. and Tefera, T. (2013) ‘Impact of metal silos on households’ maize storage, storage losses and food security: an application of propensity score matching’, Food Policy 43: 44–5 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2013.08.005>.

Hirschmann, D. and Vaughan, M. (1983) ‘Source food production and income generation in a matrilineal society: rural women in Zomba, Malawi’, Journal of Southern African Studies 10(1): 86–99.

Humphries, S., Classen, L., Jimenez, J., Sierra, F., Gallardo, O. and Gomez, M. (2012) ‘Opening cracks for the transgression of social boundaries: an evaluation of the gender impacts of farmer research teams in Honduras’, World Development 40(10): 2078–95 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.05.008>.

Jack, K. and Tobias, J. (2017) Seeding Success: Increasing Agricultural Technology Adoption through Information, IGC Growth Brief Series 012, London: International Growth Centre.

Kabeer, N. (1999) ‘Resources, agency, achievements: reflections on the measurement of women’s empowerment’, Development and Change 30(3): 435–64.

Kabeer, N. (2001) ‘Conflicts over credit: re-evaluating the empowerment potential of loans to women in rural Bangladesh’, World Development 29(1): 63–84.

Kerr, R.B., Snapp, S., Chirwa, M., Shumba, L. and Msachi, R. (2007) ‘Participatory research on legume diversification with Malawian smallholder farmers for improved human nutrition and soil fertility’, Experimental Agriculture 43(4): 437–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0014479707005339>.

Luttrell, C., Quiroz, S., Scrutton, C. and Bird, K. (2009) Understanding and Operationalising Empowerment [pdf], Working Paper 308, London: Overseas Development Institute (ODI) <https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/5500.pdf> [accessed 12 January 2017].

Maleko, G.N., Liheta, B.S.A., Aikaruwa, D., Lukas, A. and Sumari, G.A. (2013) ‘Women participation in microfinance institutions of Tanzania: the case of savings and credit co-operative societies (SACCOS)’, Journal of Business Administration and Education 4(2): 139–75.

Manfre, C., Rubin, D., Allen, A., Summerfield, G., Colverson, K. and Akeredolu, M. (2013) Reducing the Gender Gap in Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services [online], MEAS Discussion Paper, Washington, DC: Cultural Practice <https://agrilinks.org/sites/default/files/resource/files/MEAS%20Discussion%20Paper%202%20-%20Gender%20and%20Extension%20-%202013_04_01_0_0.pdf> [accessed 19 December 2016].

Meinzen-Dick, R., Johnson, N., Quisumbing, A., Njuki, J., Behrman, J., Rubin, D., Peterman, A. and Waitanji, E. (2011) Gender, Assets, and Agricultural Development Programs: A Conceptual Framework, CAPRi Working Paper No. 99, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute <http://dx.doi.org/10.2499/CAPRiWP99>.

Miller, G. and Mobarak, A.M. (2013) Gender Differences in Preferences, Intra-household Externalities, and the Low Demand for Improved Cookstoves [pdf], NBER Working Paper 18964, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research <https://www.povertyactionlab.org/sites/default/files/publications/stove_long.pdf> [accessed 5 November 2016].

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