The role of handpump corrosion in the contamination and failure of rural water supplies
Vincent Casey | Lawrence Brown | Jacob D. Carpenter | Jacinta Nekesa | Bonny Etti
There has been much discussion over many years regarding the origin of elevated iron concentrations in rural water supplies in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. High iron concentrations are often assumed to be naturally occurring in groundwater, despite several studies over the last 30 years which also point to the role of handpump corrosion in aggressive groundwater. Handpump standards specify that galvanized iron pump materials should not be used in groundwater due to the risk of corrosion, yet this advice is not always followed. High iron concentrations, whether naturally occurring, or present as a result of corrosion, have an impact on taste, odour, and appearance of water and can promote the growth of unpleasant iron metabolizing bacteria. These effects often result in the abandonment of boreholes, sometimes only a year old, and a return to unprotected and unsafe water sources. Where boreholes are not abandoned, the effects of corrosion can cause pump materials to degrade to the point where the pump becomes inoperable. These outcomes are clearly inconsistent with the provision of sustainable water supply services as a fundamental human right. This paper provides a synthesis of work undertaken in this area over the last 30 years and recent practical experience of WaterAid in investigating these problems in water supplies in north-eastern Uganda.Andersson, H. and Johansson, J. (2002) Iron Removal from Groundwater in Rakai District, Uganda [pdf], MSc thesis, Department of Environmental Engineering, Sweden: Lulea University of Technology <http://epubl.luth.se/1402-1617/2002/292/LTU-EX-02292-SE.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Anscombe, J. (2014) ‘Sustainable Groundwater Development: The failure of handpumps and why a call to action is needed’ [online], RWSN DGroups discussion <https://dgroups.org/RWSN/groundwater_rwsn/discussions/ae169411>.
Arlosoroff, S., Tschannerl, G., Grey, D., Journey, W. and Roche, R. (1987) Community Water Supply: The Handpump Option [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/409> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Baumann, E. (1998) Handpump Technology Input to the Joint Review of the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Eastern Uganda Project: RUWASA Phase IIA [online], St Gallen, Switzerland: SKAT/RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/418> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Baumann, E. and Furey, S. (2013) How Three Handpumps Revolutionised Rural Water Supplies: A Brief History of the India Mark II/III, Afridev, and the Zimbabwe Bush Pump [online], Rural Water Supply Network. Field Note 2013-1, St Gallen, Switzerland: SKAT/RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/475> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Brett, M.E. (2015) Field Study Investigating the Potential of Water Quality Testing to Predict Corrosion in Boreholes in Northern Uganda, MSc thesis, Macon, GA: Mercer University School of Engineering.
Chilton, P.J. and Smith-Carington, A.K. (1984) ‘Characteristics of the weathered basement aquifer in Malawi in relation to rural water supplies’, in Challenges in African Hydrology and Water Resources: Proceedings of the Harare Symposium, p. 70 [pdf], IAHS Press <http://hydrologie.org/redbooks/a144/iahs_144_0057.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Fader, C.T. (2011) Retrofitting Boreholes Contaminated With Iron in Rural Uganda [pdf], MSc thesis, Houghton, MI: Michigan Technological University <www.geo.mtu.edu/~jsgierke/student_theses/FaderC_MSCEReport_RetrofittingWellsContaminatedWithIRB.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Furey, S. (2014) Handpumps: Where Now? A Synthesis of Online Discussions (2012–2014) [online], St Gallen, Switzerland: Rural Water Supply Network/SKAT Foundation <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/614> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Harvey, P.A. (2003) Sustainable Handpump Projects in Africa: Report on Fieldwork in Uganda [pdf], Leicestershire, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough University <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/docs/research/WEJW2/Report_-_Uganda.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Harvey, P.A. and Skinner, B.H. (2002) Sustainable Handpump Projects in Africa: Report on Fieldwork in Zambia [pdf] Leicestershire, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough University <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/docs/research/WEJW2/Report_-_Zambia.pdf> [accessed 1 September 2015].
Harvey, P.A., Jawara, D. and Reed, R.A. (2002) Sustainable Handpump Projects in Africa: Report on Fieldwork in Ghana [pdf], Leicestershire, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough University <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/docs/research/WEJW2/Report_-_Ghana.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Ibe Sr, K.M., Egereonu, U.U. and Sowa, A.H.O. (2002) ‘The impact of corrosion on water quality of West African sub-region’, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 78: 31–43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1016128404928>.
Kapulu, M. (2012) Iron Removal in Borehole Water: A Case Study of Luapula Province, MSc thesis, Lusaka: University of Zambia.
Karen, M. and Anscombe, J. (2007) Bad Tasting Groundwater Tackled [pdf], The Water Wheel, March/April 2007 <www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Water%20Wheel/Articles/2007/02/WaterWheel_2007_02_groundwater%20p16-17.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Kumar Daw, R. (1992) Performance of PVC Riser Pipes with India Mark II Hand Pumps: Results from Field Trials February 1988 to March 1992 [pdf], Danida Project Directorate, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa, India <www.rural-water-supply.net/_ressources/documents/default/1-609-2-1408964093.pdf> [accessed 13 September 2014].
Langenegger, O. (1987) Groundwater Quality: An Important Factor for Selecting Handpumps [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <www.ircwash.org/resources/groundwater-quality-important-factor-selecting-handpumps> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Langenegger, O. (1994) Groundwater Quality and Handpump Corrosion in Africa [online], UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, Water and Sanitation Report 8 <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/604> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Lewis, W.J. and Chilton, P.J. (1989) ‘The impact of plastic materials on iron levels in village groundwater supplies in Malawi’, Water and Environment Journal 3(1): 82–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1989.tb01369.x>.
Parker, A. (2011) WASHtech: Africa Wide Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Technology Review: WASHTech Deliverable 2.1, p. 17 [online], RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/taf/taf-selection-tool/details/520> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Uganda National Bureau of Standards (UNBS) (1995a) US 405 (1995): Shallow Well Handpump (Model U2/U3) [pdf], Uganda Standard 405 <https://ia601604.us.archive.org/1/items/us.405.1995/us.405.1995.pdf> [accessed 18 January 2015].
UNBS (1995b) US 404 (1995): Extra Deepwell CBMS Handpump [pdf], Uganda Standard 404 <https://ia601609.us.archive.org/28/items/us.404.1995/us.404.1995.pdf> [accessed 18 January 2015].
UNBS (2008) Uganda Standard: Drinking (Potable) Water – Specification, US 201:2008 <https://law.resource.org/pub/ug/ibr/us.201.2008.html> [accessed 21 September 2015].
World Bank (1986) Draft Sample Bidding Documents for the Procurement of Handpumps [online], Rural Water Supply Handpumps Project, Nairobi: UNDP <www.ircwash.org/resources/draft-sample-bidding-documents-procurement-handpumps> [accessed 21 September 2015].
World Health Organization (WHO) (2011) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, 4th edn [online], Geneva: World Health Organization <www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2011/dwq_guidelines/en/> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Andersson, H. and Johansson, J. (2002) Iron Removal from Groundwater in Rakai District, Uganda [pdf], MSc thesis, Department of Environmental Engineering, Sweden: Lulea University of Technology <http://epubl.luth.se/1402-1617/2002/292/LTU-EX-02292-SE.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Anscombe, J. (2014) ‘Sustainable Groundwater Development: The failure of handpumps and why a call to action is needed’ [online], RWSN DGroups discussion <https://dgroups.org/RWSN/groundwater_rwsn/discussions/ae169411>.
Arlosoroff, S., Tschannerl, G., Grey, D., Journey, W. and Roche, R. (1987) Community Water Supply: The Handpump Option [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/409> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Baumann, E. (1998) Handpump Technology Input to the Joint Review of the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Eastern Uganda Project: RUWASA Phase IIA [online], St Gallen, Switzerland: SKAT/RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/418> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Baumann, E. and Furey, S. (2013) How Three Handpumps Revolutionised Rural Water Supplies: A Brief History of the India Mark II/III, Afridev, and the Zimbabwe Bush Pump [online], Rural Water Supply Network. Field Note 2013-1, St Gallen, Switzerland: SKAT/RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/475> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Brett, M.E. (2015) Field Study Investigating the Potential of Water Quality Testing to Predict Corrosion in Boreholes in Northern Uganda, MSc thesis, Macon, GA: Mercer University School of Engineering.
Chilton, P.J. and Smith-Carington, A.K. (1984) ‘Characteristics of the weathered basement aquifer in Malawi in relation to rural water supplies’, in Challenges in African Hydrology and Water Resources: Proceedings of the Harare Symposium, p. 70 [pdf], IAHS Press <http://hydrologie.org/redbooks/a144/iahs_144_0057.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Fader, C.T. (2011) Retrofitting Boreholes Contaminated With Iron in Rural Uganda [pdf], MSc thesis, Houghton, MI: Michigan Technological University <www.geo.mtu.edu/~jsgierke/student_theses/FaderC_MSCEReport_RetrofittingWellsContaminatedWithIRB.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Furey, S. (2014) Handpumps: Where Now? A Synthesis of Online Discussions (2012–2014) [online], St Gallen, Switzerland: Rural Water Supply Network/SKAT Foundation <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/614> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Harvey, P.A. (2003) Sustainable Handpump Projects in Africa: Report on Fieldwork in Uganda [pdf], Leicestershire, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough University <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/docs/research/WEJW2/Report_-_Uganda.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Harvey, P.A. and Skinner, B.H. (2002) Sustainable Handpump Projects in Africa: Report on Fieldwork in Zambia [pdf] Leicestershire, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough University <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/docs/research/WEJW2/Report_-_Zambia.pdf> [accessed 1 September 2015].
Harvey, P.A., Jawara, D. and Reed, R.A. (2002) Sustainable Handpump Projects in Africa: Report on Fieldwork in Ghana [pdf], Leicestershire, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough University <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/docs/research/WEJW2/Report_-_Ghana.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Ibe Sr, K.M., Egereonu, U.U. and Sowa, A.H.O. (2002) ‘The impact of corrosion on water quality of West African sub-region’, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 78: 31–43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1016128404928>.
Kapulu, M. (2012) Iron Removal in Borehole Water: A Case Study of Luapula Province, MSc thesis, Lusaka: University of Zambia.
Karen, M. and Anscombe, J. (2007) Bad Tasting Groundwater Tackled [pdf], The Water Wheel, March/April 2007 <www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Water%20Wheel/Articles/2007/02/WaterWheel_2007_02_groundwater%20p16-17.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Kumar Daw, R. (1992) Performance of PVC Riser Pipes with India Mark II Hand Pumps: Results from Field Trials February 1988 to March 1992 [pdf], Danida Project Directorate, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa, India <www.rural-water-supply.net/_ressources/documents/default/1-609-2-1408964093.pdf> [accessed 13 September 2014].
Langenegger, O. (1987) Groundwater Quality: An Important Factor for Selecting Handpumps [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <www.ircwash.org/resources/groundwater-quality-important-factor-selecting-handpumps> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Langenegger, O. (1994) Groundwater Quality and Handpump Corrosion in Africa [online], UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, Water and Sanitation Report 8 <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/604> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Lewis, W.J. and Chilton, P.J. (1989) ‘The impact of plastic materials on iron levels in village groundwater supplies in Malawi’, Water and Environment Journal 3(1): 82–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1989.tb01369.x>.
Parker, A. (2011) WASHtech: Africa Wide Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Technology Review: WASHTech Deliverable 2.1, p. 17 [online], RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/taf/taf-selection-tool/details/520> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Uganda National Bureau of Standards (UNBS) (1995a) US 405 (1995): Shallow Well Handpump (Model U2/U3) [pdf], Uganda Standard 405 <https://ia601604.us.archive.org/1/items/us.405.1995/us.405.1995.pdf> [accessed 18 January 2015].
UNBS (1995b) US 404 (1995): Extra Deepwell CBMS Handpump [pdf], Uganda Standard 404 <https://ia601609.us.archive.org/28/items/us.404.1995/us.404.1995.pdf> [accessed 18 January 2015].
UNBS (2008) Uganda Standard: Drinking (Potable) Water – Specification, US 201:2008 <https://law.resource.org/pub/ug/ibr/us.201.2008.html> [accessed 21 September 2015].
World Bank (1986) Draft Sample Bidding Documents for the Procurement of Handpumps [online], Rural Water Supply Handpumps Project, Nairobi: UNDP <www.ircwash.org/resources/draft-sample-bidding-documents-procurement-handpumps> [accessed 21 September 2015].
World Health Organization (WHO) (2011) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, 4th edn [online], Geneva: World Health Organization <www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2011/dwq_guidelines/en/> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Andersson, H. and Johansson, J. (2002) Iron Removal from Groundwater in Rakai District, Uganda [pdf], MSc thesis, Department of Environmental Engineering, Sweden: Lulea University of Technology <http://epubl.luth.se/1402-1617/2002/292/LTU-EX-02292-SE.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Anscombe, J. (2014) ‘Sustainable Groundwater Development: The failure of handpumps and why a call to action is needed’ [online], RWSN DGroups discussion <https://dgroups.org/RWSN/groundwater_rwsn/discussions/ae169411>.
Arlosoroff, S., Tschannerl, G., Grey, D., Journey, W. and Roche, R. (1987) Community Water Supply: The Handpump Option [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/409> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Baumann, E. (1998) Handpump Technology Input to the Joint Review of the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Eastern Uganda Project: RUWASA Phase IIA [online], St Gallen, Switzerland: SKAT/RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/418> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Baumann, E. and Furey, S. (2013) How Three Handpumps Revolutionised Rural Water Supplies: A Brief History of the India Mark II/III, Afridev, and the Zimbabwe Bush Pump [online], Rural Water Supply Network. Field Note 2013-1, St Gallen, Switzerland: SKAT/RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/475> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Brett, M.E. (2015) Field Study Investigating the Potential of Water Quality Testing to Predict Corrosion in Boreholes in Northern Uganda, MSc thesis, Macon, GA: Mercer University School of Engineering.
Chilton, P.J. and Smith-Carington, A.K. (1984) ‘Characteristics of the weathered basement aquifer in Malawi in relation to rural water supplies’, in Challenges in African Hydrology and Water Resources: Proceedings of the Harare Symposium, p. 70 [pdf], IAHS Press <http://hydrologie.org/redbooks/a144/iahs_144_0057.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Fader, C.T. (2011) Retrofitting Boreholes Contaminated With Iron in Rural Uganda [pdf], MSc thesis, Houghton, MI: Michigan Technological University <www.geo.mtu.edu/~jsgierke/student_theses/FaderC_MSCEReport_RetrofittingWellsContaminatedWithIRB.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Furey, S. (2014) Handpumps: Where Now? A Synthesis of Online Discussions (2012–2014) [online], St Gallen, Switzerland: Rural Water Supply Network/SKAT Foundation <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/614> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Harvey, P.A. (2003) Sustainable Handpump Projects in Africa: Report on Fieldwork in Uganda [pdf], Leicestershire, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough University <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/docs/research/WEJW2/Report_-_Uganda.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Harvey, P.A. and Skinner, B.H. (2002) Sustainable Handpump Projects in Africa: Report on Fieldwork in Zambia [pdf] Leicestershire, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough University <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/docs/research/WEJW2/Report_-_Zambia.pdf> [accessed 1 September 2015].
Harvey, P.A., Jawara, D. and Reed, R.A. (2002) Sustainable Handpump Projects in Africa: Report on Fieldwork in Ghana [pdf], Leicestershire, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough University <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/docs/research/WEJW2/Report_-_Ghana.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Ibe Sr, K.M., Egereonu, U.U. and Sowa, A.H.O. (2002) ‘The impact of corrosion on water quality of West African sub-region’, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 78: 31–43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1016128404928>.
Kapulu, M. (2012) Iron Removal in Borehole Water: A Case Study of Luapula Province, MSc thesis, Lusaka: University of Zambia.
Karen, M. and Anscombe, J. (2007) Bad Tasting Groundwater Tackled [pdf], The Water Wheel, March/April 2007 <www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Water%20Wheel/Articles/2007/02/WaterWheel_2007_02_groundwater%20p16-17.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Kumar Daw, R. (1992) Performance of PVC Riser Pipes with India Mark II Hand Pumps: Results from Field Trials February 1988 to March 1992 [pdf], Danida Project Directorate, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa, India <www.rural-water-supply.net/_ressources/documents/default/1-609-2-1408964093.pdf> [accessed 13 September 2014].
Langenegger, O. (1987) Groundwater Quality: An Important Factor for Selecting Handpumps [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <www.ircwash.org/resources/groundwater-quality-important-factor-selecting-handpumps> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Langenegger, O. (1994) Groundwater Quality and Handpump Corrosion in Africa [online], UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, Water and Sanitation Report 8 <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/604> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Lewis, W.J. and Chilton, P.J. (1989) ‘The impact of plastic materials on iron levels in village groundwater supplies in Malawi’, Water and Environment Journal 3(1): 82–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1989.tb01369.x>.
Parker, A. (2011) WASHtech: Africa Wide Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Technology Review: WASHTech Deliverable 2.1, p. 17 [online], RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/taf/taf-selection-tool/details/520> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Uganda National Bureau of Standards (UNBS) (1995a) US 405 (1995): Shallow Well Handpump (Model U2/U3) [pdf], Uganda Standard 405 <https://ia601604.us.archive.org/1/items/us.405.1995/us.405.1995.pdf> [accessed 18 January 2015].
UNBS (1995b) US 404 (1995): Extra Deepwell CBMS Handpump [pdf], Uganda Standard 404 <https://ia601609.us.archive.org/28/items/us.404.1995/us.404.1995.pdf> [accessed 18 January 2015].
UNBS (2008) Uganda Standard: Drinking (Potable) Water – Specification, US 201:2008 <https://law.resource.org/pub/ug/ibr/us.201.2008.html> [accessed 21 September 2015].
World Bank (1986) Draft Sample Bidding Documents for the Procurement of Handpumps [online], Rural Water Supply Handpumps Project, Nairobi: UNDP <www.ircwash.org/resources/draft-sample-bidding-documents-procurement-handpumps> [accessed 21 September 2015].
World Health Organization (WHO) (2011) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, 4th edn [online], Geneva: World Health Organization <www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2011/dwq_guidelines/en/> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Andersson, H. and Johansson, J. (2002) Iron Removal from Groundwater in Rakai District, Uganda [pdf], MSc thesis, Department of Environmental Engineering, Sweden: Lulea University of Technology <http://epubl.luth.se/1402-1617/2002/292/LTU-EX-02292-SE.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Anscombe, J. (2014) ‘Sustainable Groundwater Development: The failure of handpumps and why a call to action is needed’ [online], RWSN DGroups discussion <https://dgroups.org/RWSN/groundwater_rwsn/discussions/ae169411>.
Arlosoroff, S., Tschannerl, G., Grey, D., Journey, W. and Roche, R. (1987) Community Water Supply: The Handpump Option [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/409> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Baumann, E. (1998) Handpump Technology Input to the Joint Review of the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Eastern Uganda Project: RUWASA Phase IIA [online], St Gallen, Switzerland: SKAT/RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/418> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Baumann, E. and Furey, S. (2013) How Three Handpumps Revolutionised Rural Water Supplies: A Brief History of the India Mark II/III, Afridev, and the Zimbabwe Bush Pump [online], Rural Water Supply Network. Field Note 2013-1, St Gallen, Switzerland: SKAT/RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/475> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Brett, M.E. (2015) Field Study Investigating the Potential of Water Quality Testing to Predict Corrosion in Boreholes in Northern Uganda, MSc thesis, Macon, GA: Mercer University School of Engineering.
Chilton, P.J. and Smith-Carington, A.K. (1984) ‘Characteristics of the weathered basement aquifer in Malawi in relation to rural water supplies’, in Challenges in African Hydrology and Water Resources: Proceedings of the Harare Symposium, p. 70 [pdf], IAHS Press <http://hydrologie.org/redbooks/a144/iahs_144_0057.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Fader, C.T. (2011) Retrofitting Boreholes Contaminated With Iron in Rural Uganda [pdf], MSc thesis, Houghton, MI: Michigan Technological University <www.geo.mtu.edu/~jsgierke/student_theses/FaderC_MSCEReport_RetrofittingWellsContaminatedWithIRB.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Furey, S. (2014) Handpumps: Where Now? A Synthesis of Online Discussions (2012–2014) [online], St Gallen, Switzerland: Rural Water Supply Network/SKAT Foundation <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/614> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Harvey, P.A. (2003) Sustainable Handpump Projects in Africa: Report on Fieldwork in Uganda [pdf], Leicestershire, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough University <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/docs/research/WEJW2/Report_-_Uganda.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Harvey, P.A. and Skinner, B.H. (2002) Sustainable Handpump Projects in Africa: Report on Fieldwork in Zambia [pdf] Leicestershire, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough University <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/docs/research/WEJW2/Report_-_Zambia.pdf> [accessed 1 September 2015].
Harvey, P.A., Jawara, D. and Reed, R.A. (2002) Sustainable Handpump Projects in Africa: Report on Fieldwork in Ghana [pdf], Leicestershire, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre, Loughborough University <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/docs/research/WEJW2/Report_-_Ghana.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Ibe Sr, K.M., Egereonu, U.U. and Sowa, A.H.O. (2002) ‘The impact of corrosion on water quality of West African sub-region’, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 78: 31–43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1016128404928>.
Kapulu, M. (2012) Iron Removal in Borehole Water: A Case Study of Luapula Province, MSc thesis, Lusaka: University of Zambia.
Karen, M. and Anscombe, J. (2007) Bad Tasting Groundwater Tackled [pdf], The Water Wheel, March/April 2007 <www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Water%20Wheel/Articles/2007/02/WaterWheel_2007_02_groundwater%20p16-17.pdf> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Kumar Daw, R. (1992) Performance of PVC Riser Pipes with India Mark II Hand Pumps: Results from Field Trials February 1988 to March 1992 [pdf], Danida Project Directorate, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa, India <www.rural-water-supply.net/_ressources/documents/default/1-609-2-1408964093.pdf> [accessed 13 September 2014].
Langenegger, O. (1987) Groundwater Quality: An Important Factor for Selecting Handpumps [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <www.ircwash.org/resources/groundwater-quality-important-factor-selecting-handpumps> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Langenegger, O. (1994) Groundwater Quality and Handpump Corrosion in Africa [online], UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, Water and Sanitation Report 8 <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/604> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Lewis, W.J. and Chilton, P.J. (1989) ‘The impact of plastic materials on iron levels in village groundwater supplies in Malawi’, Water and Environment Journal 3(1): 82–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1989.tb01369.x>.
Parker, A. (2011) WASHtech: Africa Wide Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Technology Review: WASHTech Deliverable 2.1, p. 17 [online], RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/taf/taf-selection-tool/details/520> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Uganda National Bureau of Standards (UNBS) (1995a) US 405 (1995): Shallow Well Handpump (Model U2/U3) [pdf], Uganda Standard 405 <https://ia601604.us.archive.org/1/items/us.405.1995/us.405.1995.pdf> [accessed 18 January 2015].
UNBS (1995b) US 404 (1995): Extra Deepwell CBMS Handpump [pdf], Uganda Standard 404 <https://ia601609.us.archive.org/28/items/us.404.1995/us.404.1995.pdf> [accessed 18 January 2015].
UNBS (2008) Uganda Standard: Drinking (Potable) Water – Specification, US 201:2008 <https://law.resource.org/pub/ug/ibr/us.201.2008.html> [accessed 21 September 2015].
World Bank (1986) Draft Sample Bidding Documents for the Procurement of Handpumps [online], Rural Water Supply Handpumps Project, Nairobi: UNDP <www.ircwash.org/resources/draft-sample-bidding-documents-procurement-handpumps> [accessed 21 September 2015].
World Health Organization (WHO) (2011) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, 4th edn [online], Geneva: World Health Organization <www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2011/dwq_guidelines/en/> [accessed 21 September 2015].
Geochemical insights of arsenic mobilization into the aquifers of Punjab, Pakistan
Sadiq, Muhammad
Eqani, Syed Ali Musstjab Akber Shah
Podgorski, Joel
Ilyas, Shazia
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Nkhuwa, D. C. W.
Okotto-Okotto, J.
Pedley, S.
Stuart, M. E.
Tijani, M. N.
Wright, J.
Hydrogeology Journal, Vol. 25 (2017), Iss. 4 P.1093
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Rafa, Nazifa
Hridi, Sanjida Marium
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Powell, Wayne
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Sullivan, K.
Leybourne, M.I.
Voinot, A.
Layton-Matthews, D.
Stoltze, A.
Bowell, R.J.
Science of The Total Environment, Vol. 810 (2022), Iss. P.151215
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Nedaw, D.
Kebede, S.
Mkandawire, T.
Makuluni, P.
Shaba, C.
Okullo, J.
Owor, M.
Carter, R.
Chilton, J.
Casey, V.
Fallas, H.
MacDonald, A.M.
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Taylor, Richard G.
Journal of African Earth Sciences, Vol. 175 (2021), Iss. P.104113
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Hydrogeology Journal, Vol. 27 (2019), Iss. 2 P.535
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