Roads are generally perceived as infrastructure to deliver transport services, but they are more than that. They are major interventions in the hydrology of areas where they are constructed - concentrating runoff and altering subsurface flows. At present, water-related damage constitutes a major cost factor in road maintenance. Using ongoing research from Ethiopia, this article argues to reverse this and turn water from a foe into a friend and integrate water harvesting with road development. Optimized road designs are required - better planning of alignments, making use of road drainage, road surfaces, and river crossings, but also capturing freshly opened springs and systematically including developing storage and enhanced recharge facilities in road-building programmes. Equally important are inclusive planning processes that are sensitive to the multi-functionality of roads but also to the potentially uneven distribution of benefits and the diverse livelihood impacts. There is a need for closer integration of watershed and road-building programmes. With 5.5 million kilometres of roads in sub-Saharan Africa alone, and road building continuing to be one of the largest public investments, the potential of roads for water harvesting is great.

Bender, H. (2009) Pistes rurales et mesures antierosives. Recommandations techniques, Wiesendangen: Bender Partner GmbH, Engineering Umwelt.

BMZ, GiZ and KfW (2012) Water-spreading Weirs for the Development of Degraded River Valleys: Experience from the Sahel, Eschborn: GIZ.

Bryceson, D.B., Bradbury, A. and Bradbury, T. (2008) ‘Roads to poverty reduction? Exploring rural roads’ impact on mobility in Africa and Asia’, Development Policy Review 26(4): 459-84 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7679.2008.00418.x≯.

Crawford, E., Kelly, V., Jayne, T.S. and Howard, J. (2003) ‘Input use and market development in Sub-Saharan Africa: an overview’, Food Policy 28: 277-92 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2003.08.003≯.

Demenge, J. (2011) Living on the Road, Waiting for the Road: The Political Ecology of Road Construction in Ladakh [online], Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex <http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/38501≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/38501

Ericson, M. (2008) ‘Policy perspectives of road traffic injury in developing Asia’, in 17th Biennial Conference of the Asian Studies Association of Australia [pdf], Melbourne: Monash University <http://artsonline.monash.edu.au/mai/files/2012/07/matthewericson.pdf≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. http://artsonline.monash.edu.au/mai/files/2012/07/matthewericson.pdf

Fishbein, R. (2001) ‘Rural infrastructure in Africa: policy directions’, Africa Regional Working Paper Series, 18 [pdf] Washington, DC: World Bank <www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/wp18.pdf≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/wp18.pdf

Folkeson, L., Baekken,T., Brencic, M., Dawson, A., Francois, D., Kurimska, P., Leitao, T., Licbinsky, R. and Vojtesek, M. (2008) ‘Source and fate of water contaminants in roads’, in A. Dawson (ed.), Water in Road Structures: Movement, Drainage and Effects, pp. 107-46, Nottingham: Springer.

De Grassi, A. (2005) ‘Transport, poverty and agrarian change in Africa: models, mechanisms and new ways forward’, IDS Bulletin 36(2): 52-7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2005.tb00196.x≯.

Griffiths, P.J., Hird, A.B. and Tomlinson, P. (2000) ‘Rural road drainage design for environmental protection’, unpublished report [pdf] DFID <www.transport-links.org/transport_links/filearea/documentstore/119_PR-INT-192.pdf≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. www.transport-links.org/transport_links/filearea/documentstore/119_PR-INT-192.pdf

International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) (2005) ‘Infrastructure development and poverty reduction: a literature review’, in S. Fan and C. Chan-Kang (eds), Road Development, Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction in China, pp. 22-8, Washington, DC: IFPRI.

Jungerius, P.D., Matundura, J., van de Ancker, J.A.M. (2002) ‘Road construction and gully erosion in West Pokot, Kenya’, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 27: 1237-47 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/esp.423≯.

Kubbinga, B. (2012) Road Runoff Harvesting in the Drylands of Sub-Saharan Africa: Its Potential for Assisting Smallholder Farmers in Coping with Water Scarcity and Climate Change, Based on Case Studies in Eastern Province, Kenya, MSc thesis, Amsterdam: Vrije University.

Mahapa, S.M. and Mashiri, M. (2001) ‘Social exclusion and rural transport: gender aspects of a road improvement project in Tshitwe, Northern Province’, Development Southern Africa 18(3): 365-76 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03768350120070026≯.

Malesu, M.M., Sang, J.K., Odhiambo, O.J., Oduor, A.R. and Nyabenge, M. (2006) Hydrologic Impacts of Ponds on Land Cover Change, Nairobi: Regional Land Management Unit (RELMAin-ICRAF), Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida).

Neal, I. (2012) ‘The potential of sand dam road crossings’, Dams and Reservoirs 22(3/4): 129-43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/dare.13.00004≯.

Ngigi, S.N. (2003) Rainwater Harvesting for Improved Food Security: Promising Technologies in the Greater Horn of Africa, p. 266, Nairobi, Kenya: Greater Horn of Africa Rainwater Partnership (GHARP), Kenya Rainwater Association (KRA).

Nissen-Petersen, E. (2006) Water from Roads: A Handbook for Technicians and Farmers on Harvesting Rain Water from Roads, Nairobi: ASAL Consultants Ltd.

Pomfret, R. (2006) The Central Asian Economies since Independence, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Riverson, J., Gaviria, J. and Thriscutt, S. (1991) ‘Rural roads in sub-Saharan Africa: lessons from World Bank experience’, World Bank Technical Paper (African Technical Department Series) 41.

Santinho Faısca, J., Baena, J., Baltzer, S., Gajewska, B., Nousiainen, A., Hermansson, A., Erlingsson, S., Brencic, M. and Dawson, A. (2008) ‘Control of pavement water and pollution prevention’, in A. Dawson (ed.), Water in Road Structures: Movement, Drainage and Effects, pp. 299-356, Nottingham: Springer.

Van de Walle, D. (2000) Assessing the Poverty Impact of Rural Roads, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Van Steenbergen, F., Lawrence, P., Mehari Haile, A., Faures, J.M. and Salman, M. (2010) ‘Guidelines for spate irrigation’, Irrigation and Drainage Paper 46, Rome: FAO.

Venables, A.J. and Limao, N. (1999) ‘Infrastructure, geographical disadvantage and transport costs’, Policy Research Working Paper Series 2257, Washington, DC: World Bank.

WHO (1989) ‘Lead: environmental aspects’, Environmental Health Criteria 85, p. 106, Geneva: WHO.

Wilson, F. (2004) ‘Towards a political economy of roads: experiences from Peru’, Development and Change 35(3): 525-46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.2004.00364.x≯.

World Bank (1994) World Development Report: Infrastructure for Development, Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank (2006) Ethiopia: Managing Water Resources to Maximize Sustainable Growth, World Bank Water Resources Assistance Strategy for Ethiopia, Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank (2010) Africa's Infrastructure: A Time for Transformation, V. Foster and C. Briceñogarmendia (eds), Washington DC: World Bank, Agence Française de Développement.

World Bank (2013) World Development Indicators 2013 [online], Washington DC: World Bank <http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/978-0-8213-9824-1≯ [accessed 1 April 2014]. http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/978-0-8213-9824-1

Zeedyk, B. (2006) A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land… Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads [pdf] Santa Fe: The Quivira Coalition, Zeedyk Ecological Consulting, LLC, The Rio Puerco Management Committee - Watershed Initiative, and the New Mexico Environment Department - Surface Water Quality Bureau <http://quiviracoalition.org/images/pdfs/1888-A_ Good_Road_Lies_Easy_on_the_Land.pdf≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. http://quiviracoalition.org/images/pdfs/1888-A_ Good_Road_Lies_Easy_on_the_Land.pdf

Bender, H. (2009) Pistes rurales et mesures antierosives. Recommandations techniques, Wiesendangen: Bender Partner GmbH, Engineering Umwelt.

BMZ, GiZ and KfW (2012) Water-spreading Weirs for the Development of Degraded River Valleys: Experience from the Sahel, Eschborn: GIZ.

Bryceson, D.B., Bradbury, A. and Bradbury, T. (2008) ‘Roads to poverty reduction? Exploring rural roads’ impact on mobility in Africa and Asia’, Development Policy Review 26(4): 459-84 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7679.2008.00418.x≯.

Crawford, E., Kelly, V., Jayne, T.S. and Howard, J. (2003) ‘Input use and market development in Sub-Saharan Africa: an overview’, Food Policy 28: 277-92 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2003.08.003≯.

Demenge, J. (2011) Living on the Road, Waiting for the Road: The Political Ecology of Road Construction in Ladakh [online], Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex <http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/38501≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/38501

Ericson, M. (2008) ‘Policy perspectives of road traffic injury in developing Asia’, in 17th Biennial Conference of the Asian Studies Association of Australia [pdf], Melbourne: Monash University <http://artsonline.monash.edu.au/mai/files/2012/07/matthewericson.pdf≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. http://artsonline.monash.edu.au/mai/files/2012/07/matthewericson.pdf

Fishbein, R. (2001) ‘Rural infrastructure in Africa: policy directions’, Africa Regional Working Paper Series, 18 [pdf] Washington, DC: World Bank <www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/wp18.pdf≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/wp18.pdf

Folkeson, L., Baekken,T., Brencic, M., Dawson, A., Francois, D., Kurimska, P., Leitao, T., Licbinsky, R. and Vojtesek, M. (2008) ‘Source and fate of water contaminants in roads’, in A. Dawson (ed.), Water in Road Structures: Movement, Drainage and Effects, pp. 107-46, Nottingham: Springer.

De Grassi, A. (2005) ‘Transport, poverty and agrarian change in Africa: models, mechanisms and new ways forward’, IDS Bulletin 36(2): 52-7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2005.tb00196.x≯.

Griffiths, P.J., Hird, A.B. and Tomlinson, P. (2000) ‘Rural road drainage design for environmental protection’, unpublished report [pdf] DFID <www.transport-links.org/transport_links/filearea/documentstore/119_PR-INT-192.pdf≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. www.transport-links.org/transport_links/filearea/documentstore/119_PR-INT-192.pdf

International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) (2005) ‘Infrastructure development and poverty reduction: a literature review’, in S. Fan and C. Chan-Kang (eds), Road Development, Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction in China, pp. 22-8, Washington, DC: IFPRI.

Jungerius, P.D., Matundura, J., van de Ancker, J.A.M. (2002) ‘Road construction and gully erosion in West Pokot, Kenya’, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 27: 1237-47 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/esp.423≯.

Kubbinga, B. (2012) Road Runoff Harvesting in the Drylands of Sub-Saharan Africa: Its Potential for Assisting Smallholder Farmers in Coping with Water Scarcity and Climate Change, Based on Case Studies in Eastern Province, Kenya, MSc thesis, Amsterdam: Vrije University.

Mahapa, S.M. and Mashiri, M. (2001) ‘Social exclusion and rural transport: gender aspects of a road improvement project in Tshitwe, Northern Province’, Development Southern Africa 18(3): 365-76 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03768350120070026≯.

Malesu, M.M., Sang, J.K., Odhiambo, O.J., Oduor, A.R. and Nyabenge, M. (2006) Hydrologic Impacts of Ponds on Land Cover Change, Nairobi: Regional Land Management Unit (RELMAin-ICRAF), Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida).

Neal, I. (2012) ‘The potential of sand dam road crossings’, Dams and Reservoirs 22(3/4): 129-43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/dare.13.00004≯.

Ngigi, S.N. (2003) Rainwater Harvesting for Improved Food Security: Promising Technologies in the Greater Horn of Africa, p. 266, Nairobi, Kenya: Greater Horn of Africa Rainwater Partnership (GHARP), Kenya Rainwater Association (KRA).

Nissen-Petersen, E. (2006) Water from Roads: A Handbook for Technicians and Farmers on Harvesting Rain Water from Roads, Nairobi: ASAL Consultants Ltd.

Pomfret, R. (2006) The Central Asian Economies since Independence, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Riverson, J., Gaviria, J. and Thriscutt, S. (1991) ‘Rural roads in sub-Saharan Africa: lessons from World Bank experience’, World Bank Technical Paper (African Technical Department Series) 41.

Santinho Faısca, J., Baena, J., Baltzer, S., Gajewska, B., Nousiainen, A., Hermansson, A., Erlingsson, S., Brencic, M. and Dawson, A. (2008) ‘Control of pavement water and pollution prevention’, in A. Dawson (ed.), Water in Road Structures: Movement, Drainage and Effects, pp. 299-356, Nottingham: Springer.

Van de Walle, D. (2000) Assessing the Poverty Impact of Rural Roads, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Van Steenbergen, F., Lawrence, P., Mehari Haile, A., Faures, J.M. and Salman, M. (2010) ‘Guidelines for spate irrigation’, Irrigation and Drainage Paper 46, Rome: FAO.

Venables, A.J. and Limao, N. (1999) ‘Infrastructure, geographical disadvantage and transport costs’, Policy Research Working Paper Series 2257, Washington, DC: World Bank.

WHO (1989) ‘Lead: environmental aspects’, Environmental Health Criteria 85, p. 106, Geneva: WHO.

Wilson, F. (2004) ‘Towards a political economy of roads: experiences from Peru’, Development and Change 35(3): 525-46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.2004.00364.x≯.

World Bank (1994) World Development Report: Infrastructure for Development, Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank (2006) Ethiopia: Managing Water Resources to Maximize Sustainable Growth, World Bank Water Resources Assistance Strategy for Ethiopia, Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank (2010) Africa's Infrastructure: A Time for Transformation, V. Foster and C. Briceñogarmendia (eds), Washington DC: World Bank, Agence Française de Développement.

World Bank (2013) World Development Indicators 2013 [online], Washington DC: World Bank <http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/978-0-8213-9824-1≯ [accessed 1 April 2014]. http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/978-0-8213-9824-1

Zeedyk, B. (2006) A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land… Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads [pdf] Santa Fe: The Quivira Coalition, Zeedyk Ecological Consulting, LLC, The Rio Puerco Management Committee - Watershed Initiative, and the New Mexico Environment Department - Surface Water Quality Bureau <http://quiviracoalition.org/images/pdfs/1888-A_ Good_Road_Lies_Easy_on_the_Land.pdf≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. http://quiviracoalition.org/images/pdfs/1888-A_ Good_Road_Lies_Easy_on_the_Land.pdf

Bender, H. (2009) Pistes rurales et mesures antierosives. Recommandations techniques, Wiesendangen: Bender Partner GmbH, Engineering Umwelt.

BMZ, GiZ and KfW (2012) Water-spreading Weirs for the Development of Degraded River Valleys: Experience from the Sahel, Eschborn: GIZ.

Bryceson, D.B., Bradbury, A. and Bradbury, T. (2008) ‘Roads to poverty reduction? Exploring rural roads’ impact on mobility in Africa and Asia’, Development Policy Review 26(4): 459-84 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7679.2008.00418.x≯.

Crawford, E., Kelly, V., Jayne, T.S. and Howard, J. (2003) ‘Input use and market development in Sub-Saharan Africa: an overview’, Food Policy 28: 277-92 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2003.08.003≯.

Demenge, J. (2011) Living on the Road, Waiting for the Road: The Political Ecology of Road Construction in Ladakh [online], Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex <http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/38501≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/38501

Ericson, M. (2008) ‘Policy perspectives of road traffic injury in developing Asia’, in 17th Biennial Conference of the Asian Studies Association of Australia [pdf], Melbourne: Monash University <http://artsonline.monash.edu.au/mai/files/2012/07/matthewericson.pdf≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. http://artsonline.monash.edu.au/mai/files/2012/07/matthewericson.pdf

Fishbein, R. (2001) ‘Rural infrastructure in Africa: policy directions’, Africa Regional Working Paper Series, 18 [pdf] Washington, DC: World Bank <www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/wp18.pdf≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/wp18.pdf

Folkeson, L., Baekken,T., Brencic, M., Dawson, A., Francois, D., Kurimska, P., Leitao, T., Licbinsky, R. and Vojtesek, M. (2008) ‘Source and fate of water contaminants in roads’, in A. Dawson (ed.), Water in Road Structures: Movement, Drainage and Effects, pp. 107-46, Nottingham: Springer.

De Grassi, A. (2005) ‘Transport, poverty and agrarian change in Africa: models, mechanisms and new ways forward’, IDS Bulletin 36(2): 52-7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2005.tb00196.x≯.

Griffiths, P.J., Hird, A.B. and Tomlinson, P. (2000) ‘Rural road drainage design for environmental protection’, unpublished report [pdf] DFID <www.transport-links.org/transport_links/filearea/documentstore/119_PR-INT-192.pdf≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. www.transport-links.org/transport_links/filearea/documentstore/119_PR-INT-192.pdf

International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) (2005) ‘Infrastructure development and poverty reduction: a literature review’, in S. Fan and C. Chan-Kang (eds), Road Development, Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction in China, pp. 22-8, Washington, DC: IFPRI.

Jungerius, P.D., Matundura, J., van de Ancker, J.A.M. (2002) ‘Road construction and gully erosion in West Pokot, Kenya’, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 27: 1237-47 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/esp.423≯.

Kubbinga, B. (2012) Road Runoff Harvesting in the Drylands of Sub-Saharan Africa: Its Potential for Assisting Smallholder Farmers in Coping with Water Scarcity and Climate Change, Based on Case Studies in Eastern Province, Kenya, MSc thesis, Amsterdam: Vrije University.

Mahapa, S.M. and Mashiri, M. (2001) ‘Social exclusion and rural transport: gender aspects of a road improvement project in Tshitwe, Northern Province’, Development Southern Africa 18(3): 365-76 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03768350120070026≯.

Malesu, M.M., Sang, J.K., Odhiambo, O.J., Oduor, A.R. and Nyabenge, M. (2006) Hydrologic Impacts of Ponds on Land Cover Change, Nairobi: Regional Land Management Unit (RELMAin-ICRAF), Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida).

Neal, I. (2012) ‘The potential of sand dam road crossings’, Dams and Reservoirs 22(3/4): 129-43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/dare.13.00004≯.

Ngigi, S.N. (2003) Rainwater Harvesting for Improved Food Security: Promising Technologies in the Greater Horn of Africa, p. 266, Nairobi, Kenya: Greater Horn of Africa Rainwater Partnership (GHARP), Kenya Rainwater Association (KRA).

Nissen-Petersen, E. (2006) Water from Roads: A Handbook for Technicians and Farmers on Harvesting Rain Water from Roads, Nairobi: ASAL Consultants Ltd.

Pomfret, R. (2006) The Central Asian Economies since Independence, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Riverson, J., Gaviria, J. and Thriscutt, S. (1991) ‘Rural roads in sub-Saharan Africa: lessons from World Bank experience’, World Bank Technical Paper (African Technical Department Series) 41.

Santinho Faısca, J., Baena, J., Baltzer, S., Gajewska, B., Nousiainen, A., Hermansson, A., Erlingsson, S., Brencic, M. and Dawson, A. (2008) ‘Control of pavement water and pollution prevention’, in A. Dawson (ed.), Water in Road Structures: Movement, Drainage and Effects, pp. 299-356, Nottingham: Springer.

Van de Walle, D. (2000) Assessing the Poverty Impact of Rural Roads, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Van Steenbergen, F., Lawrence, P., Mehari Haile, A., Faures, J.M. and Salman, M. (2010) ‘Guidelines for spate irrigation’, Irrigation and Drainage Paper 46, Rome: FAO.

Venables, A.J. and Limao, N. (1999) ‘Infrastructure, geographical disadvantage and transport costs’, Policy Research Working Paper Series 2257, Washington, DC: World Bank.

WHO (1989) ‘Lead: environmental aspects’, Environmental Health Criteria 85, p. 106, Geneva: WHO.

Wilson, F. (2004) ‘Towards a political economy of roads: experiences from Peru’, Development and Change 35(3): 525-46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.2004.00364.x≯.

World Bank (1994) World Development Report: Infrastructure for Development, Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank (2006) Ethiopia: Managing Water Resources to Maximize Sustainable Growth, World Bank Water Resources Assistance Strategy for Ethiopia, Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank (2010) Africa's Infrastructure: A Time for Transformation, V. Foster and C. Briceñogarmendia (eds), Washington DC: World Bank, Agence Française de Développement.

World Bank (2013) World Development Indicators 2013 [online], Washington DC: World Bank <http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/978-0-8213-9824-1≯ [accessed 1 April 2014]. http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/978-0-8213-9824-1

Zeedyk, B. (2006) A Good Road Lies Easy on the Land… Water Harvesting from Low-Standard Rural Roads [pdf] Santa Fe: The Quivira Coalition, Zeedyk Ecological Consulting, LLC, The Rio Puerco Management Committee - Watershed Initiative, and the New Mexico Environment Department - Surface Water Quality Bureau <http://quiviracoalition.org/images/pdfs/1888-A_ Good_Road_Lies_Easy_on_the_Land.pdf≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. http://quiviracoalition.org/images/pdfs/1888-A_ Good_Road_Lies_Easy_on_the_Land.pdf

Bender, H. (2009) Pistes rurales et mesures antierosives. Recommandations techniques, Wiesendangen: Bender Partner GmbH, Engineering Umwelt.

BMZ, GiZ and KfW (2012) Water-spreading Weirs for the Development of Degraded River Valleys: Experience from the Sahel, Eschborn: GIZ.

Bryceson, D.B., Bradbury, A. and Bradbury, T. (2008) ‘Roads to poverty reduction? Exploring rural roads’ impact on mobility in Africa and Asia’, Development Policy Review 26(4): 459-84 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7679.2008.00418.x≯.

Crawford, E., Kelly, V., Jayne, T.S. and Howard, J. (2003) ‘Input use and market development in Sub-Saharan Africa: an overview’, Food Policy 28: 277-92 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2003.08.003≯.

Demenge, J. (2011) Living on the Road, Waiting for the Road: The Political Ecology of Road Construction in Ladakh [online], Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex <http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/38501≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/38501

Ericson, M. (2008) ‘Policy perspectives of road traffic injury in developing Asia’, in 17th Biennial Conference of the Asian Studies Association of Australia [pdf], Melbourne: Monash University <http://artsonline.monash.edu.au/mai/files/2012/07/matthewericson.pdf≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. http://artsonline.monash.edu.au/mai/files/2012/07/matthewericson.pdf

Fishbein, R. (2001) ‘Rural infrastructure in Africa: policy directions’, Africa Regional Working Paper Series, 18 [pdf] Washington, DC: World Bank <www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/wp18.pdf≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/wp18.pdf

Folkeson, L., Baekken,T., Brencic, M., Dawson, A., Francois, D., Kurimska, P., Leitao, T., Licbinsky, R. and Vojtesek, M. (2008) ‘Source and fate of water contaminants in roads’, in A. Dawson (ed.), Water in Road Structures: Movement, Drainage and Effects, pp. 107-46, Nottingham: Springer.

De Grassi, A. (2005) ‘Transport, poverty and agrarian change in Africa: models, mechanisms and new ways forward’, IDS Bulletin 36(2): 52-7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2005.tb00196.x≯.

Griffiths, P.J., Hird, A.B. and Tomlinson, P. (2000) ‘Rural road drainage design for environmental protection’, unpublished report [pdf] DFID <www.transport-links.org/transport_links/filearea/documentstore/119_PR-INT-192.pdf≯ [accessed 26 March 2014]. www.transport-links.org/transport_links/filearea/documentstore/119_PR-INT-192.pdf

International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) (2005) ‘Infrastructure development and poverty reduction: a literature review’, in S. Fan and C. Chan-Kang (eds), Road Development, Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction in China, pp. 22-8, Washington, DC: IFPRI.

Jungerius, P.D., Matundura, J., van de Ancker, J.A.M. (2002) ‘Road construction and gully erosion in West Pokot, Kenya’, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 27: 1237-47 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/esp.423≯.

Kubbinga, B. (2012) Road Runoff Harvesting in the Drylands of Sub-Saharan Africa: Its Potential for Assisting Smallholder Farmers in Coping with Water Scarcity and Climate Change, Based on Case Studies in Eastern Province, Kenya, MSc thesis, Amsterdam: Vrije University.

Mahapa, S.M. and Mashiri, M. (2001) ‘Social exclusion and rural transport: gender aspects of a road improvement project in Tshitwe, Northern Province’, Development Southern Africa 18(3): 365-76 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03768350120070026≯.

Malesu, M.M., Sang, J.K., Odhiambo, O.J., Oduor, A.R. and Nyabenge, M. (2006) Hydrologic Impacts of Ponds on Land Cover Change, Nairobi: Regional Land Management Unit (RELMAin-ICRAF), Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida).

Neal, I. (2012) ‘The potential of sand dam road crossings’, Dams and Reservoirs 22(3/4): 129-43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/dare.13.00004≯.

Ngigi, S.N. (2003) Rainwater Harvesting for Improved Food Security: Promising Technologies in the Greater Horn of Africa, p. 266, Nairobi, Kenya: Greater Horn of Africa Rainwater Partnership (GHARP), Kenya Rainwater Association (KRA).

Nissen-Petersen, E. (2006) Water from Roads: A Handbook for Technicians and Farmers on Harvesting Rain Water from Roads, Nairobi: ASAL Consultants Ltd.

Pomfret, R. (2006) The Central Asian Economies since Independence, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Riverson, J., Gaviria, J. and Thriscutt, S. (1991) ‘Rural roads in sub-Saharan Africa: lessons from World Bank experience’, World Bank Technical Paper (African Technical Department Series) 41.

Santinho Faısca, J., Baena, J., Baltzer, S., Gajewska, B., Nousiainen, A., Hermansson, A., Erlingsson, S., Brencic, M. and Dawson, A. (2008) ‘Control of pavement water and pollution prevention’, in A. Dawson (ed.), Water in Road Structures: Movement, Drainage and Effects, pp. 299-356, Nottingham: Springer.

Van de Walle, D. (2000) Assessing the Poverty Impact of Rural Roads, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Van Steenbergen, F., Lawrence, P., Mehari Haile, A., Faures, J.M. and Salman, M. (2010) ‘Guidelines for spate irrigation’, Irrigation and Drainage Paper 46, Rome: FAO.

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