Financing and design innovation in rural domestic rainwater harvesting in Madagascar
Rural water supply interventions in low-resource settings often suffer from poor functionality. The use of technologies and financing approaches, that are out of step with the communities that they target, are primary drivers of this breakdown in supply. This paper describes a pilot study from south-east Madagascar that provides rural households with access to a water source at the home through the sale of rainwater harvesting systems. Results from the pilot show that households were prepared to pay a significant contribution towards establishing a household water supply despite being located in a low-resource, water-abundant region. Over a payback period of six months, zero households defaulted on loans that covered 57 per cent of the costs for materials and transport. Water quality tests demonstrated that the systems were capable of providing water with low levels of microbial contamination (median CFU/100 ml = 7). High levels of adherence to operation and maintenance schedules suggest that people were capable and motivated to maintain and use their systems.Amin, M.T., Tschung-il Kim, Amin, M.N. and Han, M.Y. (2013) ‘Effects of catchment, first-flush, storage conditions, and time on microbial quality in rainwater harvesting systems’, Water Environment Research 85: 2317–29 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2175/106143013X13706200598433>.
Andres, L., Deb, S., Gambrill, M., Giannone, E., Joseph, G., Kannath, P., Kumar, M., Kurian, P.K., Many, R. and Muwonge, A. (2016) Sustainability of Demand Responsive Approaches to Rural Water Supply: The Case of Kerala [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank Water Global Practice Group <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/283051491326550979/pdf/WPS8025.pdf> [accessed 24 February 2019].
DeBusk, K. and Hunt, W. (2014) Rainwater Harvesting: A Comprehensive Review of Literature [online], North Carolina: Water Resources Research Institute of the University of North Carolina <https://repository.lib.ncsu.edu/bitstream/handle/1840.4/8170/1_NC-WRRI-425.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y> [accessed 24 February 2019].
DelAgua (2018) DelAgua Single Incubator [online] <http://www.delagua.org/products/details/10098-DelAgua-Single-Incubator> [accessed 30 August 2018].
Garrett, V., Ogutu, P., Mabonga, P., Ombeki, S., Mwaki, A., Aluoch, G., Phelan, M. and Quick, R.E. (2008) ‘Diarrhoea prevention in a high-risk rural Kenyan population through point-of-use chlorination, safe water storage, sanitation, and rainwater harvesting’, Epidemiology and Infection 136: 1463–71 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S095026880700026X>.
Gould, J. and Nissen-Petersen, E. (1999) Rainwater Catchment Systems for Domestic Supply: Design, Construction and Implementation, Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing.
L’Institut National de la Statistique (INSTAT) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2013) Final Report: Madagascar: South Multi-Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2012, Antananarivo, Madagascar: INSTAT.
International Monetary Fund (IMF) (2017) Republic of Madagascar: Economic Development Document [online] <https://www.imf.org/~/media/Files/Publications/CR/2017/cr17225.ashx> [accessed 24 February 2019].
Peters, E.J. (2016) ‘Success and success factors of domestic rainwater harvesting projects in the Caribbean’, Journal of Sustainable Development 9: 55–69 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v9n5p55>.
Saladin, M. and Bohara, R.C. (2016) Difficulties in Replicating Success Stories: The Case of Domestic Rainwater Harvesting [pdf], Côte d’Ivoire: Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) <https://rwsnforum7.files.wordpress.com/2016/11/full_paper_0137_submitter_0046_saladin_matthias.pdf> [accessed 1 May 2018].
SEED Madagascar (2016) Project Tatirano Phase 1 Final Report [pdf], Fort Dauphin, Madagascar: SEED Madagascar <https://madagascar.co.uk/application/files/1915/1928/3358/Project_Tatirano_Phase_I_Final_Report_2016.pdf>.
Taylor, B. (2009) Addressing the Sustainability Crisis: Lessons from Research on Managing Rural Water Projects [pdf], Tanzania: WaterAid <https://washmatters.wateraid.org/publications/addressing-the-sustainability-crisis-lessons-from-research-on-managing-rural-water> [accessed 26 February 2019].
World Bank (2017) Sustainability Assessment of Rural Water Service Delivery Models: Findings of a Multi-Country Review [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/27988/W17055.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y> [accessed 24 February 2019].
World Health Organization (WHO) (2016) Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment: Application for Water Safety Management [pdf], Geneva, Switzerland: WHO <http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/246195/9789241565370-eng.pdf?sequence=1> [accessed 24 February 2019].
WHO (2017) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: 4th Edition, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO <http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/254637/9789241549950-eng.pdf?sequence=1> [accessed 24 February 2019].
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) (1990) ‘Country Profile Database: Madagascar Regional Association (Africa)’ [online] <https://www.wmo.int/cpdb/madagascar#chart_25912> [accessed 30 August 2018].
Amin, M.T., Tschung-il Kim, Amin, M.N. and Han, M.Y. (2013) ‘Effects of catchment, first-flush, storage conditions, and time on microbial quality in rainwater harvesting systems’, Water Environment Research 85: 2317–29 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2175/106143013X13706200598433>.
Andres, L., Deb, S., Gambrill, M., Giannone, E., Joseph, G., Kannath, P., Kumar, M., Kurian, P.K., Many, R. and Muwonge, A. (2016) Sustainability of Demand Responsive Approaches to Rural Water Supply: The Case of Kerala [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank Water Global Practice Group <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/283051491326550979/pdf/WPS8025.pdf> [accessed 24 February 2019].
DeBusk, K. and Hunt, W. (2014) Rainwater Harvesting: A Comprehensive Review of Literature [online], North Carolina: Water Resources Research Institute of the University of North Carolina <https://repository.lib.ncsu.edu/bitstream/handle/1840.4/8170/1_NC-WRRI-425.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y> [accessed 24 February 2019].
DelAgua (2018) DelAgua Single Incubator [online] <http://www.delagua.org/products/details/10098-DelAgua-Single-Incubator> [accessed 30 August 2018].
Garrett, V., Ogutu, P., Mabonga, P., Ombeki, S., Mwaki, A., Aluoch, G., Phelan, M. and Quick, R.E. (2008) ‘Diarrhoea prevention in a high-risk rural Kenyan population through point-of-use chlorination, safe water storage, sanitation, and rainwater harvesting’, Epidemiology and Infection 136: 1463–71 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S095026880700026X>.
Gould, J. and Nissen-Petersen, E. (1999) Rainwater Catchment Systems for Domestic Supply: Design, Construction and Implementation, Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing.
L’Institut National de la Statistique (INSTAT) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2013) Final Report: Madagascar: South Multi-Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2012, Antananarivo, Madagascar: INSTAT.
International Monetary Fund (IMF) (2017) Republic of Madagascar: Economic Development Document [online] <https://www.imf.org/~/media/Files/Publications/CR/2017/cr17225.ashx> [accessed 24 February 2019].
Peters, E.J. (2016) ‘Success and success factors of domestic rainwater harvesting projects in the Caribbean’, Journal of Sustainable Development 9: 55–69 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v9n5p55>.
Saladin, M. and Bohara, R.C. (2016) Difficulties in Replicating Success Stories: The Case of Domestic Rainwater Harvesting [pdf], Côte d’Ivoire: Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) <https://rwsnforum7.files.wordpress.com/2016/11/full_paper_0137_submitter_0046_saladin_matthias.pdf> [accessed 1 May 2018].
SEED Madagascar (2016) Project Tatirano Phase 1 Final Report [pdf], Fort Dauphin, Madagascar: SEED Madagascar <https://madagascar.co.uk/application/files/1915/1928/3358/Project_Tatirano_Phase_I_Final_Report_2016.pdf>.
Taylor, B. (2009) Addressing the Sustainability Crisis: Lessons from Research on Managing Rural Water Projects [pdf], Tanzania: WaterAid <https://washmatters.wateraid.org/publications/addressing-the-sustainability-crisis-lessons-from-research-on-managing-rural-water> [accessed 26 February 2019].
World Bank (2017) Sustainability Assessment of Rural Water Service Delivery Models: Findings of a Multi-Country Review [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/27988/W17055.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y> [accessed 24 February 2019].
World Health Organization (WHO) (2016) Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment: Application for Water Safety Management [pdf], Geneva, Switzerland: WHO <http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/246195/9789241565370-eng.pdf?sequence=1> [accessed 24 February 2019].
WHO (2017) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: 4th Edition, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO <http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/254637/9789241549950-eng.pdf?sequence=1> [accessed 24 February 2019].
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) (1990) ‘Country Profile Database: Madagascar Regional Association (Africa)’ [online] <https://www.wmo.int/cpdb/madagascar#chart_25912> [accessed 30 August 2018].
Amin, M.T., Tschung-il Kim, Amin, M.N. and Han, M.Y. (2013) ‘Effects of catchment, first-flush, storage conditions, and time on microbial quality in rainwater harvesting systems’, Water Environment Research 85: 2317–29 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2175/106143013X13706200598433>.
Andres, L., Deb, S., Gambrill, M., Giannone, E., Joseph, G., Kannath, P., Kumar, M., Kurian, P.K., Many, R. and Muwonge, A. (2016) Sustainability of Demand Responsive Approaches to Rural Water Supply: The Case of Kerala [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank Water Global Practice Group <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/283051491326550979/pdf/WPS8025.pdf> [accessed 24 February 2019].
DeBusk, K. and Hunt, W. (2014) Rainwater Harvesting: A Comprehensive Review of Literature [online], North Carolina: Water Resources Research Institute of the University of North Carolina <https://repository.lib.ncsu.edu/bitstream/handle/1840.4/8170/1_NC-WRRI-425.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y> [accessed 24 February 2019].
DelAgua (2018) DelAgua Single Incubator [online] <http://www.delagua.org/products/details/10098-DelAgua-Single-Incubator> [accessed 30 August 2018].
Garrett, V., Ogutu, P., Mabonga, P., Ombeki, S., Mwaki, A., Aluoch, G., Phelan, M. and Quick, R.E. (2008) ‘Diarrhoea prevention in a high-risk rural Kenyan population through point-of-use chlorination, safe water storage, sanitation, and rainwater harvesting’, Epidemiology and Infection 136: 1463–71 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S095026880700026X>.
Gould, J. and Nissen-Petersen, E. (1999) Rainwater Catchment Systems for Domestic Supply: Design, Construction and Implementation, Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing.
L’Institut National de la Statistique (INSTAT) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2013) Final Report: Madagascar: South Multi-Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2012, Antananarivo, Madagascar: INSTAT.
International Monetary Fund (IMF) (2017) Republic of Madagascar: Economic Development Document [online] <https://www.imf.org/~/media/Files/Publications/CR/2017/cr17225.ashx> [accessed 24 February 2019].
Peters, E.J. (2016) ‘Success and success factors of domestic rainwater harvesting projects in the Caribbean’, Journal of Sustainable Development 9: 55–69 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v9n5p55>.
Saladin, M. and Bohara, R.C. (2016) Difficulties in Replicating Success Stories: The Case of Domestic Rainwater Harvesting [pdf], Côte d’Ivoire: Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) <https://rwsnforum7.files.wordpress.com/2016/11/full_paper_0137_submitter_0046_saladin_matthias.pdf> [accessed 1 May 2018].
SEED Madagascar (2016) Project Tatirano Phase 1 Final Report [pdf], Fort Dauphin, Madagascar: SEED Madagascar <https://madagascar.co.uk/application/files/1915/1928/3358/Project_Tatirano_Phase_I_Final_Report_2016.pdf>.
Taylor, B. (2009) Addressing the Sustainability Crisis: Lessons from Research on Managing Rural Water Projects [pdf], Tanzania: WaterAid <https://washmatters.wateraid.org/publications/addressing-the-sustainability-crisis-lessons-from-research-on-managing-rural-water> [accessed 26 February 2019].
World Bank (2017) Sustainability Assessment of Rural Water Service Delivery Models: Findings of a Multi-Country Review [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/27988/W17055.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y> [accessed 24 February 2019].
World Health Organization (WHO) (2016) Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment: Application for Water Safety Management [pdf], Geneva, Switzerland: WHO <http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/246195/9789241565370-eng.pdf?sequence=1> [accessed 24 February 2019].
WHO (2017) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: 4th Edition, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO <http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/254637/9789241549950-eng.pdf?sequence=1> [accessed 24 February 2019].
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) (1990) ‘Country Profile Database: Madagascar Regional Association (Africa)’ [online] <https://www.wmo.int/cpdb/madagascar#chart_25912> [accessed 30 August 2018].
Amin, M.T., Tschung-il Kim, Amin, M.N. and Han, M.Y. (2013) ‘Effects of catchment, first-flush, storage conditions, and time on microbial quality in rainwater harvesting systems’, Water Environment Research 85: 2317–29 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2175/106143013X13706200598433>.
Andres, L., Deb, S., Gambrill, M., Giannone, E., Joseph, G., Kannath, P., Kumar, M., Kurian, P.K., Many, R. and Muwonge, A. (2016) Sustainability of Demand Responsive Approaches to Rural Water Supply: The Case of Kerala [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank Water Global Practice Group <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/283051491326550979/pdf/WPS8025.pdf> [accessed 24 February 2019].
DeBusk, K. and Hunt, W. (2014) Rainwater Harvesting: A Comprehensive Review of Literature [online], North Carolina: Water Resources Research Institute of the University of North Carolina <https://repository.lib.ncsu.edu/bitstream/handle/1840.4/8170/1_NC-WRRI-425.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y> [accessed 24 February 2019].
DelAgua (2018) DelAgua Single Incubator [online] <http://www.delagua.org/products/details/10098-DelAgua-Single-Incubator> [accessed 30 August 2018].
Garrett, V., Ogutu, P., Mabonga, P., Ombeki, S., Mwaki, A., Aluoch, G., Phelan, M. and Quick, R.E. (2008) ‘Diarrhoea prevention in a high-risk rural Kenyan population through point-of-use chlorination, safe water storage, sanitation, and rainwater harvesting’, Epidemiology and Infection 136: 1463–71 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S095026880700026X>.
Gould, J. and Nissen-Petersen, E. (1999) Rainwater Catchment Systems for Domestic Supply: Design, Construction and Implementation, Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing.
L’Institut National de la Statistique (INSTAT) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2013) Final Report: Madagascar: South Multi-Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2012, Antananarivo, Madagascar: INSTAT.
International Monetary Fund (IMF) (2017) Republic of Madagascar: Economic Development Document [online] <https://www.imf.org/~/media/Files/Publications/CR/2017/cr17225.ashx> [accessed 24 February 2019].
Peters, E.J. (2016) ‘Success and success factors of domestic rainwater harvesting projects in the Caribbean’, Journal of Sustainable Development 9: 55–69 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v9n5p55>.
Saladin, M. and Bohara, R.C. (2016) Difficulties in Replicating Success Stories: The Case of Domestic Rainwater Harvesting [pdf], Côte d’Ivoire: Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) <https://rwsnforum7.files.wordpress.com/2016/11/full_paper_0137_submitter_0046_saladin_matthias.pdf> [accessed 1 May 2018].
SEED Madagascar (2016) Project Tatirano Phase 1 Final Report [pdf], Fort Dauphin, Madagascar: SEED Madagascar <https://madagascar.co.uk/application/files/1915/1928/3358/Project_Tatirano_Phase_I_Final_Report_2016.pdf>.
Taylor, B. (2009) Addressing the Sustainability Crisis: Lessons from Research on Managing Rural Water Projects [pdf], Tanzania: WaterAid <https://washmatters.wateraid.org/publications/addressing-the-sustainability-crisis-lessons-from-research-on-managing-rural-water> [accessed 26 February 2019].
World Bank (2017) Sustainability Assessment of Rural Water Service Delivery Models: Findings of a Multi-Country Review [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/27988/W17055.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y> [accessed 24 February 2019].
World Health Organization (WHO) (2016) Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment: Application for Water Safety Management [pdf], Geneva, Switzerland: WHO <http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/246195/9789241565370-eng.pdf?sequence=1> [accessed 24 February 2019].
WHO (2017) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: 4th Edition, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO <http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/254637/9789241549950-eng.pdf?sequence=1> [accessed 24 February 2019].
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) (1990) ‘Country Profile Database: Madagascar Regional Association (Africa)’ [online] <https://www.wmo.int/cpdb/madagascar#chart_25912> [accessed 30 August 2018].
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