A high prevalence of schistosomiasis has been reported among primary school-going children in KwaZulu-Natal. The study aim was to conduct a community diagnosis of WASH conditions by assessing water, sanitation, and hygiene practices and to identify risk factors for schistosomiasis using participatory research methodologies. Community mapping and transect walks were conducted in Madeya village within Ingwavuma area. Thirty-six participants, comprising 19 women and 17 men aged 22–68 years participated in the study. Data were analysed using the Braun and Clarke (2006) six steps of thematic analysis. Themes reported in relation to schistosomiasis risk factors included: 1) water scarcity as a risk factor for schistosomiasis; 2) village proximity to the river as a risk factor for schistosomiasis; 3) prolonged contact with open water bodies for domestic and recreational purposes as a risk factor for schistosomiasis; 4) poor irrigation practices as a risk factor for schistosomiasis; and 5) poor sanitation and hygiene practices. The river was the main source of water for domestic use and irrigation. Consequently, members of the community were exposed to the risk of schistosomiasis infection. Open defecation was observed in the case of children, and men confessed to doing it when in the field herding animals.

Amankwa, J., Bloch, P., Meyer-Lassen, J., Olsen, A. and Christensen, N. (1994) ‘Urinary and intestinal schistosomiasis in the Tono Irrigation Scheme, Kassena/Nankana District, upper east region, Ghana’, Tropical Medicine and Parasitology: Official Organ of Deutsche Tropenmedizinische Gesellschaft and of Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) 45: 319–23.

Aryeetey, M.E., Wagatsuma, Y., Yeboah, G., Asante, M., Mensah, G., Nkrumah, F.K. and Kojima, S. (2000) ‘Urinary schistosomiasis in southern Ghana: 1. Prevalence and morbidity assessment in three (defined) rural areas drained by the Densu river’, Parasitology International 49: 155–63.

Atalabi, T.E., Adoh, S.D. and Eze, K.M. (2018) ‘The current epidemiological status of urogenital schistosomiasis among primary school pupils in Katsina State, Nigeria: an imperative for a scale up of water and sanitation initiative and mass administration of medicines with Praziquantel’, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 12(7): 1–19 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0006636>.

Azongo, K.D. (2009) Spatial Analysis of Schistosoma haematobium Infection among School Children in a Rural Sub-district of South Africa: An Application of Geographical Information System, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.

Barbosa, C.S., Araújo, K.C., Sevilla, M.A.A., Melo, F., Gomes, E.C.D.S. and Souza-Santos, R. (2010) ‘Current epidemiological status of schistosomiasis in the state of Pernambuco, Brazil’, Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 105: 549–54 <https://doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02762010000400034>.

Baumann, E. (2005) Common RWSN Context, SKAT/RWSN, St Gallen.

Boelee, E. and Madsen, H. (2006) Irrigation and Schistosomiasis in Africa: Ecological Aspects, IWMI, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Braun, V. and Clarke, V. (2006) ‘Using thematic analysis in psychology’, Qualitative research in Psychology 3: 77–101.

Brinkmann, U., Korte, R. and Schmidt-Ehry, B. (1988) ‘The distribution and spread of schistosomiasis in relation to water resources development in Mali’, Tropical Medicine and parasitology: Official Organ of Deutsche Tropenmedizinische Gesellschaft and of Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) 39: 182–5.

Colley, D.G., Bustinduy, A.L., Secor, W.E. and King, C.H. (2014) ‘Human schistosomiasis’, The Lancet 383: 2253–64 <https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61949-2>.

Dalton, P.R. (1976) ‘A socioecological approach to the control of Schistosoma mansoni in St Lucia’, Bulletin of the World Health Organization 54: 587.

De Bont, J. and Vercruysse, J. (1997) ‘The epidemiology and control of cattle schistosomiasis’, Parasitology Today 13: 255–62.

Dreibelbis, R., Kroeger, A., Hossain, K., Venkatesh, M. and Ram, P.K. (2016) ‘Behavior change without behavior change communication: nudging handwashing among primary school students in Bangladesh’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 13: 129 <https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13010129>.

Ekpo, U., Mafiana, C., Adeofun, C., Solarin, A. and Idowu, A. (2008) ‘Geographical information systems (GIS) and risk maps of urinary schistosomiasis in Ogun State, Nigeria’, Nigerian Journal of Parasitology 29: 42–9.

Ekpo, U.F., Laja-Deile, A., Oluwole, A.S., Sam-Wobo, S.O. and Mafiana, C.F. (2010) ‘Urinary schistosomiasis among preschool children in a rural community near Abeokuta, Nigeria’, Parasites & Vectors 3: 58 <https://doi.org/10.4314/njpar.v29i1.37902>.

Freeman, M.C., Ogden, S., Jacobson, J., Abbott, D., Addiss, D.G., Amnie, A.G., Beckwith, C., Cairncross, S., Callejas, R. and Colford Jr, J.M. (2013) ‘Integration of water, sanitation, and hygiene for the prevention and control of neglected tropical diseases: a rationale for inter-sectoral collaboration’, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 7: e2439 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002439>.

Gazzinelli, A., Bethony, J., Fraga, L.A., Loverde, P., Correa-Oliveira, R. and Kloos, H. (2001) ‘Exposure to Schistosoma mansoni infection in a rural area of Brazil. I: water contact’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 6: 126–35.

Given, L.M. (2008) The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA.

Glanz, K. and Bishop, D.B. (2010) ‘The role of behavioral science theory in development and implementation of public health interventions’, Annual Review of Public Health 31: 399–418 <https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.012809.103604>.

Glanz, K., Rimer, B.K. and Viswanath, K. (2008) Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research, and Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ.

Gloeckner, H., Mkanga, M. and Ndezi, T. (2004) ‘Local empowerment through community mapping for water and sanitation in Dar es Salaam’, Environment and Urbanization 16: 185–98.

Golafshani, N. (2003) ‘Understanding reliability and validity in qualitative research’, The Qualitative Report 8: 597–606.

Gordon, C.A., Kurscheid, J., Williams, G.M., Clements, A.C., Li, Y., Zhou, X.-N., Utzinger, J., McManus, D.P. and Gray, D.J. (2019) ‘Asian schistosomiasis: current status and prospects for control leading to elimination’, Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease 4: 40 <https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed4010040>.

Graham, J.P., Hirai, M. and Kim, S.-S. (2016) ‘An analysis of water collection labor among women and children in 24 sub-Saharan African countries’, PloS One 11: e0155981 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0155981>.

Grimes, J.E.T., Croll, D., Harrison, W.E., Utzinger, J., Freeman, M.C. and Templeton, M.R. (2014) ‘The relationship between water, sanitation and schistosomiasis: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 8: e3296 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0003296>.

Grimes, J.E.T., Croll, D., Harrison, W.E., Utzinger, J., Freeman, M.C. and Templeton, M.R. (2015) ‘The roles of water, sanitation and hygiene in reducing schistosomiasis: a review’, Parasites & Vectors 8: 156.

Gryseels, B., Polman, K., Clerinx, J. and Kestens, L. (2006) ‘Human schistosomiasis’, The Lancet 368: 1106–18.

Harvey, P.A. and Reed, R.A. (2006) ‘Community-managed water supplies in Africa: sustainable or dispensable?’ Community Development Journal 42: 365–78.

Haysom, A. (2006) A Study of the Factors Affecting Sustainability of Rural Water Supplies in Tanzania, Cranfield University, Bedfordshire, UK.

Hotez, P.J. and Kamath, A. (2009) ‘Neglected tropical diseases in sub-Saharan Africa: review of their prevalence, distribution, and disease burden’, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 3: e412 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000412>.

Hotez, P.J., Molyneux, D.H., Fenwick, A., Kumaresan, J., Sachs, S.E., Sachs, J.D. and Savioli, L. (2007) ‘Control of neglected tropical diseases’, New England Journal of Medicine 357: 1018–27.

Kabuyaya, M., Chimbari, M.J., Manyangadze, T. and Mukaratirwa, S. (2017) ‘Schistosomiasis risk factors based on the infection status among school-going children in the Ndumo area, uMkhanyakude district, South Africa’, Southern African Journal of Infectious Diseases 32: 67–72 <https://doi.org/10.1080/23120053.2016.1266139>.

Kapito-Tembo, A.P., Mwapasa, V., Meshnick, S.R., Samanyika, Y., Banda, D., Bowie, C. and Radke, S. (2009) ‘Prevalence distribution and risk factors for Schistosoma hematobium infection among school children in Blantyre, Malawi’, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 3: e361 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000361>.

Kosinski, K.C., Adjei, M.N., Bosompem, K.M., Crocker, J.J., Durant, J.L., Osabutey, D., Plummer, J.D., Stadecker, M.J., Wagner, A.D. and Woodin, M. (2012) ‘Effective control of Schistosoma haematobium infection in a Ghanaian community following installation of a water recreation area’, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 6: e1709 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001709>.

Kusiluka, L., Mlozi, M., Munishi, P., Karimuribo, E., Luoga, E., Mdegela, R. and Kambarage, D. (2004) ‘Preliminary observations on accessibility and utilisation of water in selected villages in Dodoma Rural and Bagamoyo Districts, Tanzania’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 29: 1275–80.

Kvalsvig, J. and Schutte, C. (1986) ‘The role of human water contact patterns in the transmission of schistosomiasis in an informal settlement near a major industrial area’, Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology 80: 13–26.

Lockwood, H. and Smits, S. (2011) Supporting Rural Water Supply, Practical Action Publishing, Rugby.

Mackintosh, G. and Colvin, C. (2003) ‘Failure of rural schemes in South Africa to provide potable water’, Environmental Geology 44: 101–5.

Madon, S., Malecela, M.N., Mashoto, K., Donohue, R., Mubyazi, G. and Michael, E. (2018) ‘The role of community participation for sustainable integrated neglected tropical diseases and water, sanitation and hygiene intervention programs: a pilot project in Tanzania’, Social Science & Medicine (1982) 202: 28–37 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.02.016>.

Manyangadze, T., Chimbari, M.J., Gebreslasie, M. and Mukaratirwa, S. (2016) ‘Risk factors and micro-geographical heterogeneity of Schistosoma haematobium in Ndumo area, uMkhanyakude district, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa’, Acta Tropica 159: 176–84 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2016.03.028>.

Mayne, J. (2018) ‘The COM-B theory of change model (V3)’ [online], working paper <www.researchgate.net/publication/314086441_The_COM-B_Theory_of_Change_Model_V3> (accessed 22 July 2020).

Montgomery, M.A., Bartram, J. and Elimelech, M. (2009) ‘Increasing functional sustainability of water and sanitation supplies in rural sub-Saharan Africa’, Environmental Engineering Science 26: 1017–23 <https://doi.org/10.1089/ees.2008.0388>.

Pullan, R.L., Freeman, M.C., Gething, P.W. and Brooker, S.J. (2014) ‘Geographical inequalities in use of improved drinking water supply and sanitation across sub-Saharan Africa: mapping and spatial analysis of cross-sectional survey data’, PLoS Medicine 11: e1001626 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001626>.

Rijsberman, F.R. (2006) ‘Water scarcity: fact or fiction?’ Agricultural Water Management 80: 5–22.

Rodgers, A.F., Ajono, L.A., Gyapong, J.O., Hagan, M. and Emerson, P.M. (2007) ‘Characteristics of latrine promotion participants and non‐participants; inspection of latrines; and perceptions of household latrines in Northern Ghana’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 12: 772–82.

Saathoff, E., Olsen, A., Magnussen, P., Kvalsvig, J.D., Becker, W. and Appleton, C.C. (2004) ‘Patterns of Schistosoma haematobium infection, impact of praziquantel treatment and re-infection after treatment in a cohort of schoolchildren from rural KwaZulu-Natal/South Africa’, BMC Infectious Diseases 4: 40.

Sacolo-Gwebu, H., Chimbari, M. and Kalinda, C. (2019) ‘Prevalence and risk factors of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiases among preschool aged children (1–5 years) in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: a cross-sectional study’, Infectious Diseases of Poverty 8: 47.

Sow, S., de Vlas, S.J., Stelma, F., Vereecken, K., Gryseels, B. and Polman, K. (2011) ‘The contribution of water contact behavior to the high Schistosoma mansoni infection rates observed in the Senegal River Basin’, BMC Infectious Diseases 11: 198.

Steinmann, P., Keiser, J., Bos, R., Tanner, M. and Utzinger, J. (2006) ‘Schistosomiasis and water resources development: systematic review, meta-analysis, and estimates of people at risk’, The Lancet Infectious Diseases 6: 411–25.

Sutton, S. (2004) Preliminary Desk Study of Potential for Self Supply in Sub-Saharan Africa, WaterAid and the Rural Water Supply Network, London.

Thomassen Morgas, D.E., Kvalsvig, J.D., Taylor, M., Gundersen, S. and Kjetland, E.F. (2010) ‘Schistosomiasis and water-related practices in school girls in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa’, Southern African Journal of Epidemiology and Infection 25: 30–3.

Thys, S., Mwape, K.E., Lefèvre, P., Dorny, P., Marcotty, T., Phiri, A.M., Phiri, I.K. and Gabriël, S. (2015) ‘Why latrines are not used: communities’ perceptions and practices regarding latrines in a Taenia solium endemic rural area in eastern Zambia’, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 9: e0003570 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0003570>.

Tumwine, J.K., Thompson, J., Katua‐Katua, M., Mujwajuzi, M., Johnstone, N., Wood, E. and Porras, I. (2002) ‘Diarrhoea and effects of different water sources, sanitation and hygiene behaviour in East Africa’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 7: 750–6.

Van der Werf, M.J., de Vlas, S.J., Brooker, S., Looman, C.W., Nagelkerke, N.J., Habbema, J.D.F. and Engels, D. (2003) ‘Quantification of clinical morbidity associated with schistosome infection in sub-Saharan Africa’, Acta Tropica 86: 125–39.

World Health Organization (2006) Preventive Chemotherapy in Human Helminthiasis, WHO, Geneva.

World Health Organization (2017) Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, WHO, Geneva.

Amankwa, J., Bloch, P., Meyer-Lassen, J., Olsen, A. and Christensen, N. (1994) ‘Urinary and intestinal schistosomiasis in the Tono Irrigation Scheme, Kassena/Nankana District, upper east region, Ghana’, Tropical Medicine and Parasitology: Official Organ of Deutsche Tropenmedizinische Gesellschaft and of Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) 45: 319–23.

Aryeetey, M.E., Wagatsuma, Y., Yeboah, G., Asante, M., Mensah, G., Nkrumah, F.K. and Kojima, S. (2000) ‘Urinary schistosomiasis in southern Ghana: 1. Prevalence and morbidity assessment in three (defined) rural areas drained by the Densu river’, Parasitology International 49: 155–63.

Atalabi, T.E., Adoh, S.D. and Eze, K.M. (2018) ‘The current epidemiological status of urogenital schistosomiasis among primary school pupils in Katsina State, Nigeria: an imperative for a scale up of water and sanitation initiative and mass administration of medicines with Praziquantel’, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 12(7): 1–19 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0006636>.

Azongo, K.D. (2009) Spatial Analysis of Schistosoma haematobium Infection among School Children in a Rural Sub-district of South Africa: An Application of Geographical Information System, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.

Barbosa, C.S., Araújo, K.C., Sevilla, M.A.A., Melo, F., Gomes, E.C.D.S. and Souza-Santos, R. (2010) ‘Current epidemiological status of schistosomiasis in the state of Pernambuco, Brazil’, Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 105: 549–54 <https://doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02762010000400034>.

Baumann, E. (2005) Common RWSN Context, SKAT/RWSN, St Gallen.

Boelee, E. and Madsen, H. (2006) Irrigation and Schistosomiasis in Africa: Ecological Aspects, IWMI, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Braun, V. and Clarke, V. (2006) ‘Using thematic analysis in psychology’, Qualitative research in Psychology 3: 77–101.

Brinkmann, U., Korte, R. and Schmidt-Ehry, B. (1988) ‘The distribution and spread of schistosomiasis in relation to water resources development in Mali’, Tropical Medicine and parasitology: Official Organ of Deutsche Tropenmedizinische Gesellschaft and of Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) 39: 182–5.

Colley, D.G., Bustinduy, A.L., Secor, W.E. and King, C.H. (2014) ‘Human schistosomiasis’, The Lancet 383: 2253–64 <https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61949-2>.

Dalton, P.R. (1976) ‘A socioecological approach to the control of Schistosoma mansoni in St Lucia’, Bulletin of the World Health Organization 54: 587.

De Bont, J. and Vercruysse, J. (1997) ‘The epidemiology and control of cattle schistosomiasis’, Parasitology Today 13: 255–62.

Dreibelbis, R., Kroeger, A., Hossain, K., Venkatesh, M. and Ram, P.K. (2016) ‘Behavior change without behavior change communication: nudging handwashing among primary school students in Bangladesh’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 13: 129 <https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13010129>.

Ekpo, U., Mafiana, C., Adeofun, C., Solarin, A. and Idowu, A. (2008) ‘Geographical information systems (GIS) and risk maps of urinary schistosomiasis in Ogun State, Nigeria’, Nigerian Journal of Parasitology 29: 42–9.

Ekpo, U.F., Laja-Deile, A., Oluwole, A.S., Sam-Wobo, S.O. and Mafiana, C.F. (2010) ‘Urinary schistosomiasis among preschool children in a rural community near Abeokuta, Nigeria’, Parasites & Vectors 3: 58 <https://doi.org/10.4314/njpar.v29i1.37902>.

Freeman, M.C., Ogden, S., Jacobson, J., Abbott, D., Addiss, D.G., Amnie, A.G., Beckwith, C., Cairncross, S., Callejas, R. and Colford Jr, J.M. (2013) ‘Integration of water, sanitation, and hygiene for the prevention and control of neglected tropical diseases: a rationale for inter-sectoral collaboration’, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 7: e2439 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002439>.

Gazzinelli, A., Bethony, J., Fraga, L.A., Loverde, P., Correa-Oliveira, R. and Kloos, H. (2001) ‘Exposure to Schistosoma mansoni infection in a rural area of Brazil. I: water contact’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 6: 126–35.

Given, L.M. (2008) The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA.

Glanz, K. and Bishop, D.B. (2010) ‘The role of behavioral science theory in development and implementation of public health interventions’, Annual Review of Public Health 31: 399–418 <https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.012809.103604>.

Glanz, K., Rimer, B.K. and Viswanath, K. (2008) Health Behavior and Health Education: Theory, Research, and Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ.

Gloeckner, H., Mkanga, M. and Ndezi, T. (2004) ‘Local empowerment through community mapping for water and sanitation in Dar es Salaam’, Environment and Urbanization 16: 185–98.

Golafshani, N. (2003) ‘Understanding reliability and validity in qualitative research’, The Qualitative Report 8: 597–606.

Gordon, C.A., Kurscheid, J., Williams, G.M., Clements, A.C., Li, Y., Zhou, X.-N., Utzinger, J., McManus, D.P. and Gray, D.J. (2019) ‘Asian schistosomiasis: current status and prospects for control leading to elimination’, Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease 4: 40 <https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed4010040>.

Graham, J.P., Hirai, M. and Kim, S.-S. (2016) ‘An analysis of water collection labor among women and children in 24 sub-Saharan African countries’, PloS One 11: e0155981 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0155981>.

Grimes, J.E.T., Croll, D., Harrison, W.E., Utzinger, J., Freeman, M.C. and Templeton, M.R. (2014) ‘The relationship between water, sanitation and schistosomiasis: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 8: e3296 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0003296>.

Grimes, J.E.T., Croll, D., Harrison, W.E., Utzinger, J., Freeman, M.C. and Templeton, M.R. (2015) ‘The roles of water, sanitation and hygiene in reducing schistosomiasis: a review’, Parasites & Vectors 8: 156.

Gryseels, B., Polman, K., Clerinx, J. and Kestens, L. (2006) ‘Human schistosomiasis’, The Lancet 368: 1106–18.

Harvey, P.A. and Reed, R.A. (2006) ‘Community-managed water supplies in Africa: sustainable or dispensable?’ Community Development Journal 42: 365–78.

Haysom, A. (2006) A Study of the Factors Affecting Sustainability of Rural Water Supplies in Tanzania, Cranfield University, Bedfordshire, UK.

Hotez, P.J. and Kamath, A. (2009) ‘Neglected tropical diseases in sub-Saharan Africa: review of their prevalence, distribution, and disease burden’, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 3: e412 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000412>.

Hotez, P.J., Molyneux, D.H., Fenwick, A., Kumaresan, J., Sachs, S.E., Sachs, J.D. and Savioli, L. (2007) ‘Control of neglected tropical diseases’, New England Journal of Medicine 357: 1018–27.

Kabuyaya, M., Chimbari, M.J., Manyangadze, T. and Mukaratirwa, S. (2017) ‘Schistosomiasis risk factors based on the infection status among school-going children in the Ndumo area, uMkhanyakude district, South Africa’, Southern African Journal of Infectious Diseases 32: 67–72 <https://doi.org/10.1080/23120053.2016.1266139>.

Kapito-Tembo, A.P., Mwapasa, V., Meshnick, S.R., Samanyika, Y., Banda, D., Bowie, C. and Radke, S. (2009) ‘Prevalence distribution and risk factors for Schistosoma hematobium infection among school children in Blantyre, Malawi’, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 3: e361 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000361>.

Kosinski, K.C., Adjei, M.N., Bosompem, K.M., Crocker, J.J., Durant, J.L., Osabutey, D., Plummer, J.D., Stadecker, M.J., Wagner, A.D. and Woodin, M. (2012) ‘Effective control of Schistosoma haematobium infection in a Ghanaian community following installation of a water recreation area’, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 6: e1709 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001709>.

Kusiluka, L., Mlozi, M., Munishi, P., Karimuribo, E., Luoga, E., Mdegela, R. and Kambarage, D. (2004) ‘Preliminary observations on accessibility and utilisation of water in selected villages in Dodoma Rural and Bagamoyo Districts, Tanzania’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 29: 1275–80.

Kvalsvig, J. and Schutte, C. (1986) ‘The role of human water contact patterns in the transmission of schistosomiasis in an informal settlement near a major industrial area’, Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology 80: 13–26.

Lockwood, H. and Smits, S. (2011) Supporting Rural Water Supply, Practical Action Publishing, Rugby.

Mackintosh, G. and Colvin, C. (2003) ‘Failure of rural schemes in South Africa to provide potable water’, Environmental Geology 44: 101–5.

Madon, S., Malecela, M.N., Mashoto, K., Donohue, R., Mubyazi, G. and Michael, E. (2018) ‘The role of community participation for sustainable integrated neglected tropical diseases and water, sanitation and hygiene intervention programs: a pilot project in Tanzania’, Social Science & Medicine (1982) 202: 28–37 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.02.016>.

Manyangadze, T., Chimbari, M.J., Gebreslasie, M. and Mukaratirwa, S. (2016) ‘Risk factors and micro-geographical heterogeneity of Schistosoma haematobium in Ndumo area, uMkhanyakude district, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa’, Acta Tropica 159: 176–84 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2016.03.028>.

Mayne, J. (2018) ‘The COM-B theory of change model (V3)’ [online], working paper <www.researchgate.net/publication/314086441_The_COM-B_Theory_of_Change_Model_V3> (accessed 22 July 2020).

Montgomery, M.A., Bartram, J. and Elimelech, M. (2009) ‘Increasing functional sustainability of water and sanitation supplies in rural sub-Saharan Africa’, Environmental Engineering Science 26: 1017–23 <https://doi.org/10.1089/ees.2008.0388>.

Pullan, R.L., Freeman, M.C., Gething, P.W. and Brooker, S.J. (2014) ‘Geographical inequalities in use of improved drinking water supply and sanitation across sub-Saharan Africa: mapping and spatial analysis of cross-sectional survey data’, PLoS Medicine 11: e1001626 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001626>.

Rijsberman, F.R. (2006) ‘Water scarcity: fact or fiction?’ Agricultural Water Management 80: 5–22.

Rodgers, A.F., Ajono, L.A., Gyapong, J.O., Hagan, M. and Emerson, P.M. (2007) ‘Characteristics of latrine promotion participants and non‐participants; inspection of latrines; and perceptions of household latrines in Northern Ghana’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 12: 772–82.

Saathoff, E., Olsen, A., Magnussen, P., Kvalsvig, J.D., Becker, W. and Appleton, C.C. (2004) ‘Patterns of Schistosoma haematobium infection, impact of praziquantel treatment and re-infection after treatment in a cohort of schoolchildren from rural KwaZulu-Natal/South Africa’, BMC Infectious Diseases 4: 40.

Sacolo-Gwebu, H., Chimbari, M. and Kalinda, C. (2019) ‘Prevalence and risk factors of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiases among preschool aged children (1–5 years) in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: a cross-sectional study’, Infectious Diseases of Poverty 8: 47.

Sow, S., de Vlas, S.J., Stelma, F., Vereecken, K., Gryseels, B. and Polman, K. (2011) ‘The contribution of water contact behavior to the high Schistosoma mansoni infection rates observed in the Senegal River Basin’, BMC Infectious Diseases 11: 198.

Steinmann, P., Keiser, J., Bos, R., Tanner, M. and Utzinger, J. (2006) ‘Schistosomiasis and water resources development: systematic review, meta-analysis, and estimates of people at risk’, The Lancet Infectious Diseases 6: 411–25.

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Thomassen Morgas, D.E., Kvalsvig, J.D., Taylor, M., Gundersen, S. and Kjetland, E.F. (2010) ‘Schistosomiasis and water-related practices in school girls in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa’, Southern African Journal of Epidemiology and Infection 25: 30–3.

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