Evidence on the performance of market-based sanitation (MBS) interventions is needed to support renewed focus on using them to deliver sanitation services at scale. We conducted a comprehensive review of WASH grant-funding since 1980 to identify household sanitation supply projects using an MBS approach, assessed project characteristics and outcomes (population impacted), and reviewed project strategies against three key factors for scaling MBS (customer and business finance; availability and viability of local entrepreneurs; appropriate toilet product and business models). For a subset with higher outcomes, we assessed project strategies more fully against nine MBS strategies considered good practice, and the programme’s ability to leverage household investment. Of 103 sanitation supply projects in eight global databases, 49 qualified as MBS and occurred in 22 countries across sub-Saharan Africa, South/Southeast Asia, and Latin America. Cumulatively, 27.6 million people, nearly all rural, gained access to basic sanitation via markets across these projects. ‘Large-scale’ MBS projects exceeding 50,000 people gaining basic sanitation (n = 27) compared with those that did not (n = 22) were longer and significantly more likely to address all three key factors (74 per cent vs. 41 per cent; p = 0.019), but on average applied only six of nine good practice strategies. Outcomes and programme leverage were higher in South/Southeast Asia than in sub-Saharan Africa. However, African projects tended to have shorter duration, fewer reached ‘large-scale’, and rarely employed a sales and marketing strategy. We discuss implications for improving the design and performance of MBS interventions globally and particularly in sub-Saharan Africa.

Ahmed, R., Hanchett, S., Kahn, M.H., Krieger, L. and Kullmann, C.P. (2011) Long-term Sustainability of Improved Sanitation in Rural Bangladesh, Water and Sanitation Program Technical Paper, Report No. 71746, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Black, M. and Fawcett, B. (2008) The Last Taboo: Opening the Door on the Global Sanitation Crisis, Earthscan Publications, London.

Cairncross, S. (1992) Sanitation and Water Supply: Practical Lessons from the Decade, Water and Sanitation Program Discussion Paper Series, Report No. 9, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Cairncross, S. (2004) The Case for Marketing Sanitation, Water and Sanitation Program Field Note, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Crocker, J., Saywell, D., Shields, K.F., Kolsky, P. and Bartram, J. (2017) ‘The true costs of participatory sanitation: evidence from community-led total sanitation studies in Ghana and Ethiopia’, Science of the Total Environment 601-602: 1075–83 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.279>.

CS WASH Fund and Aguaconsult (2018) WASH Market Facilitation: Learning Brief from Research into Effectiveness of WASH Approaches and Innovations in the Civil Society WASH Fund, CS WASH Fund, DFAT, Canberra, Australia.

De Buck, E., Van Remoortel, H., Hannes, K., Govender, T., Naidoo, S., Avau, B., Vande Veegaete, A., Musekiwa, A., Lutje, V., Cargo, M., Mosler, H.J., Vandekerckhove, P. and Young, T. (2017) Approaches to Promote Handwashing and Sanitation Behaviour Change in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Mixed Method Systematic Review [pdf], 3ie Systematic Review 36, London, International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie) <https://www.3ieimpact.org/sites/default/files/2019-01/SR%2036-Behaviour-change-sanitation_2.pdf> [accessed 23 April 2020].

Devine, J. and Sijbesma, C. (2011) ‘Sustainability of rural sanitation marketing in Vietnam: findings from a new case study’, Waterlines 30(1): 52–60 <https://doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2011.005>.

Dumpert, J. and Perez, E. (2015) ‘Going beyond mason training: enabling, facilitating, and engaging rural sanitation markets for the base of the pyramid’, Waterlines 34(3): 210–26 <https://doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2015.021>.

Dwan, P. and Bond, M. (2016) Evaluation Report: WaterSHED’s Hands-Off Sanitation Marketing Program, WaterSHED, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Gero, A., Carrard, N., Murta, J. and Willetts, J. (2014) ‘Private and social enterprise roles in water, sanitation and hygiene for the poor: a systematic review’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 4(3): 331–45 <https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2014.003>.

Heierli, U., Hartmann, A., Munger, F. and Walther, P. (2004) Sanitation is a Business: Approaches for Demand-oriented Policies, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, Bern, Switzerland.

Iarossi, G. (2009) ‘Benchmarking Africa’s costs and competitiveness’, in The Africa Competitiveness Report, pp. 83–107, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Jenkins, M. and Pedi, D. (2013a) Equity in Sanitation Marketing: How can we Support the Market to Reach the Poorest? UNICEF Sanitation Marketing Learning Series, Guidance Note 8, UNICEF, New York.

Jenkins, M. and Pedi, D. (2013b) Situation Analysis: How Do I Know if Sanitation Marketing Will Work in My Country? UNICEF Sanitation Marketing Learning Series, Guidance Note 1, UNICEF, New York.

Jenkins, M., Freeman, M. and Routray, P. (2014) ‘Measuring the safety of excreta disposal behavior in India with the New Safe San Index: reliability, validity and utility’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 11(8): 8319–46 <https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110808319>.

Kappauf, L. (2011) Opportunities and Constraints for more Sustainable Sanitation through Sanitation Marketing in Malawi: Case Study from Mzimba and Lilongwe Districts, Loughborough University, Loughborough.

Kema, K., Semali, I., Mkuwa, S., Kagonji, I., Temu, F., Ilako, F. and Mkuye, M. (2012) ‘Factors affecting the utilisation of improved ventilated latrines among communities in Mtwara Rural District, Tanzania’, Pan African Medical Journal 13(Suppl 1): 4.

Kolsky, P., Perez, E. and Trémolet, S. (2010) Financing On-Site Sanitation for the Poor: A Six Country Comparative Review and Analysis, Water and Sanitation Program Working Paper, Report No. 56943, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Mehta, M. (2008) Assessing Microfinance for Water and Sanitation: Exploring Opportunities for Sustainable Scaling Up, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, WA.

Murta, J., Foster, T. and Willetts, J. (2017) Learning Brief: Piloting Pro-Poor Support Strategies in Banteay Meas District, Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology and SNV, Sydney, Australia.

Murta, J., Willetts, J. and Triwahyudi, W. (2018) ‘Sanitation entrepreneurship in rural Indonesia: a closer look’, Environment, Development and Sustainability 20(1): 343–59 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-9883-7>.

Pedi, D. and Touch, P. (2010) WASH Marketing Project, Kampong Speu Baseline Survey, USAID WaterSHED Asia, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Pedi, D., Jenkins, M., McLellan, L., Aun, H. and Revell, G. (2012) ‘Characteristics of household sanitation use and demand in CLTS and non-CLTS villages: a comparative study from rural Cambodia’, in UNC Water & Health Conference, UNC Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC.

Pedi, D., Sophanna, M., Sophea, P. and Jenkins, M. (2014) Rural Consumer Sanitation Adoption Study: An Analysis of Rural Consumers in the Emerging Sanitation Market in Cambodia, WaterSHED Cambodia, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

PSI India (2017) ‘Developing markets for sanitation: where to start?’ [webinar], SuSanA and BEAM Exchange <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ReZTD8XCOGU&t=1375s> [accessed 29 March 2019].

Revell, G. (2017) ‘Building the market for sanitation with planned obsolescence’ [online], WaterSHED <http://watershedasia.org/hands-off-planned-obsolescence/> [accessed 12 December 2018].

Rodgers, A.F., Ajono, L.A., Gyapong, J.O., Hagan, M. and Emerson, P.M. (2007) ‘Characteristics of latrine promotion participants and non-participants; inspection of latrines; and perceptions of household latrines in Northern Ghana’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 12(6): 772–82 <https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2007.01848.x>.

Salter, D. (2008) Identifying Constraints to Increasing Sanitation Coverage: Sanitation Demand and Supply in Cambodia, Water and Sanitation Program Field Note, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Schaub-Jones, D. (2010) ‘Should we view sanitation as just another business? The crucial role of sanitation entrepreneurship and the need for outside engagement’, Enterprise Development and Microfinance 21(3): 185–204 <https://doi.org/10.3362/1755-1986.2010.017>.

Schaub-Jones, D. and Valfrey-Visser, B. (2009) ‘Supporting private entrepreneurs to deliver public goods: engaging sanitation entrepreneurs’, in 34th WEDC International Conference, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) [online], WEDC, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK <https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/Supporting_private_entrepreneurs_to_deliver_public_goods_engaging_sanitation_entrepreneurs/9585419> [accessed 23 April 2020].

Trémolet, S. (2012) Sanitation Markets: Using Economics to Improve the Delivery of Services along the Sanitation Value Chain, Sanitation Markets Pathfinder Paper, DFID, London.

Trémolet, S., Prat, M.-A., Tincani, L., Ross, I., Mujica, A., Burr, P. and Evans, B. (2015) Value for Money Analysis of DFID-funded WASH Programmes in Six Countries, Oxford Policy Management, Oxford.

Tumwebaze, I.K., Orach, C.G., Niwagaba, C., Luthi, C. and Mosler, H.-J. (2013) ‘Sanitation facilities in Kampala slums, Uganda: users’ satisfaction and determinant factors’, International Journal of Environmental Health Research 23(3): 191–204 <https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2012.713095>.

UNICEF (2014) Evaluation of the WASH Sector Strategy ‘Community Approaches to Total Sanitation’ (CATS), UNICEF, New York.

UNICEF (2016) Strategy for Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene 2016–30, UNICEF, New York.

UNICEF and Word Health Organization (2015) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment, UNICEF, New York.

USAID (2014) ‘USAID approach to improving sanitation’ [online], USAID, Washington, DC <https://2012-2017.usaid.gov/what-we-do/water-and-sanitation/advancing-water-supply-sanitation-and-hygiene/improving-sanitation> [accessed 23 April 2020].

USAID (2018a) An Examination of CLTS’s Contributions toward Universal Sanitation, USAID Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Partnerships and Learning for Sustainability (WASHPaLS) Project, Washington, DC.

USAID (2018b) Scaling Market-Based Sanitation: Desk Review on Market-based Rural Sanitation Development Programs, USAID Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Partnerships and Learning for Sustainability (WASHPaLS) Project, Washington, DC.

Venkataramanan, V., Crocker, J., Karon, A. and Bartram, J. (2018) ‘Community-led total sanitation: a mixed-methods systematic review of evidence and its quality’, Environmental Health Perspectives 126(2): 026001 <https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1965> [accessed 16 March 2020].

Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) and International Finance Corporation (IFC) (2013) Tapping the Markets: Opportunities for Domestic Investments in Sanitation for the Poor (Conference Edition) [pdf], World Bank, Washington, DC <https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/DPSP-Sanitation-Report-Conference-Edition-WSP-August-2013.pdf> [accessed 23 April 2020].

White, Z. and Burr, P. (2016) Value for Money Study in Global Sanitation Fund Programmes: Synthesis Report [pdf], Oxford Policy Management and WSSCC, Oxford, UK <https://www.wsscc.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/OPM-GSF-VfM-sysnthesis.pdf> [accessed 23 April 2020].

WHO (2018) WHO Guidelines on Sanitation and Health, WHO, Geneva.

World Bank (2018) ‘Sanitation strategy’ [online], World Bank, Washington, DC <https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/sanitation#2> [accessed 18 November 2018].

Ahmed, R., Hanchett, S., Kahn, M.H., Krieger, L. and Kullmann, C.P. (2011) Long-term Sustainability of Improved Sanitation in Rural Bangladesh, Water and Sanitation Program Technical Paper, Report No. 71746, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Black, M. and Fawcett, B. (2008) The Last Taboo: Opening the Door on the Global Sanitation Crisis, Earthscan Publications, London.

Cairncross, S. (1992) Sanitation and Water Supply: Practical Lessons from the Decade, Water and Sanitation Program Discussion Paper Series, Report No. 9, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Cairncross, S. (2004) The Case for Marketing Sanitation, Water and Sanitation Program Field Note, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Crocker, J., Saywell, D., Shields, K.F., Kolsky, P. and Bartram, J. (2017) ‘The true costs of participatory sanitation: evidence from community-led total sanitation studies in Ghana and Ethiopia’, Science of the Total Environment 601-602: 1075–83 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.279>.

CS WASH Fund and Aguaconsult (2018) WASH Market Facilitation: Learning Brief from Research into Effectiveness of WASH Approaches and Innovations in the Civil Society WASH Fund, CS WASH Fund, DFAT, Canberra, Australia.

De Buck, E., Van Remoortel, H., Hannes, K., Govender, T., Naidoo, S., Avau, B., Vande Veegaete, A., Musekiwa, A., Lutje, V., Cargo, M., Mosler, H.J., Vandekerckhove, P. and Young, T. (2017) Approaches to Promote Handwashing and Sanitation Behaviour Change in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Mixed Method Systematic Review [pdf], 3ie Systematic Review 36, London, International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie) <https://www.3ieimpact.org/sites/default/files/2019-01/SR%2036-Behaviour-change-sanitation_2.pdf> [accessed 23 April 2020].

Devine, J. and Sijbesma, C. (2011) ‘Sustainability of rural sanitation marketing in Vietnam: findings from a new case study’, Waterlines 30(1): 52–60 <https://doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2011.005>.

Dumpert, J. and Perez, E. (2015) ‘Going beyond mason training: enabling, facilitating, and engaging rural sanitation markets for the base of the pyramid’, Waterlines 34(3): 210–26 <https://doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2015.021>.

Dwan, P. and Bond, M. (2016) Evaluation Report: WaterSHED’s Hands-Off Sanitation Marketing Program, WaterSHED, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Gero, A., Carrard, N., Murta, J. and Willetts, J. (2014) ‘Private and social enterprise roles in water, sanitation and hygiene for the poor: a systematic review’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 4(3): 331–45 <https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2014.003>.

Heierli, U., Hartmann, A., Munger, F. and Walther, P. (2004) Sanitation is a Business: Approaches for Demand-oriented Policies, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, Bern, Switzerland.

Iarossi, G. (2009) ‘Benchmarking Africa’s costs and competitiveness’, in The Africa Competitiveness Report, pp. 83–107, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Jenkins, M. and Pedi, D. (2013a) Equity in Sanitation Marketing: How can we Support the Market to Reach the Poorest? UNICEF Sanitation Marketing Learning Series, Guidance Note 8, UNICEF, New York.

Jenkins, M. and Pedi, D. (2013b) Situation Analysis: How Do I Know if Sanitation Marketing Will Work in My Country? UNICEF Sanitation Marketing Learning Series, Guidance Note 1, UNICEF, New York.

Jenkins, M., Freeman, M. and Routray, P. (2014) ‘Measuring the safety of excreta disposal behavior in India with the New Safe San Index: reliability, validity and utility’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 11(8): 8319–46 <https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110808319>.

Kappauf, L. (2011) Opportunities and Constraints for more Sustainable Sanitation through Sanitation Marketing in Malawi: Case Study from Mzimba and Lilongwe Districts, Loughborough University, Loughborough.

Kema, K., Semali, I., Mkuwa, S., Kagonji, I., Temu, F., Ilako, F. and Mkuye, M. (2012) ‘Factors affecting the utilisation of improved ventilated latrines among communities in Mtwara Rural District, Tanzania’, Pan African Medical Journal 13(Suppl 1): 4.

Kolsky, P., Perez, E. and Trémolet, S. (2010) Financing On-Site Sanitation for the Poor: A Six Country Comparative Review and Analysis, Water and Sanitation Program Working Paper, Report No. 56943, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Mehta, M. (2008) Assessing Microfinance for Water and Sanitation: Exploring Opportunities for Sustainable Scaling Up, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, WA.

Murta, J., Foster, T. and Willetts, J. (2017) Learning Brief: Piloting Pro-Poor Support Strategies in Banteay Meas District, Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology and SNV, Sydney, Australia.

Murta, J., Willetts, J. and Triwahyudi, W. (2018) ‘Sanitation entrepreneurship in rural Indonesia: a closer look’, Environment, Development and Sustainability 20(1): 343–59 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-9883-7>.

Pedi, D. and Touch, P. (2010) WASH Marketing Project, Kampong Speu Baseline Survey, USAID WaterSHED Asia, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Pedi, D., Jenkins, M., McLellan, L., Aun, H. and Revell, G. (2012) ‘Characteristics of household sanitation use and demand in CLTS and non-CLTS villages: a comparative study from rural Cambodia’, in UNC Water & Health Conference, UNC Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC.

Pedi, D., Sophanna, M., Sophea, P. and Jenkins, M. (2014) Rural Consumer Sanitation Adoption Study: An Analysis of Rural Consumers in the Emerging Sanitation Market in Cambodia, WaterSHED Cambodia, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

PSI India (2017) ‘Developing markets for sanitation: where to start?’ [webinar], SuSanA and BEAM Exchange <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ReZTD8XCOGU&t=1375s> [accessed 29 March 2019].

Revell, G. (2017) ‘Building the market for sanitation with planned obsolescence’ [online], WaterSHED <http://watershedasia.org/hands-off-planned-obsolescence/> [accessed 12 December 2018].

Rodgers, A.F., Ajono, L.A., Gyapong, J.O., Hagan, M. and Emerson, P.M. (2007) ‘Characteristics of latrine promotion participants and non-participants; inspection of latrines; and perceptions of household latrines in Northern Ghana’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 12(6): 772–82 <https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2007.01848.x>.

Salter, D. (2008) Identifying Constraints to Increasing Sanitation Coverage: Sanitation Demand and Supply in Cambodia, Water and Sanitation Program Field Note, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Schaub-Jones, D. (2010) ‘Should we view sanitation as just another business? The crucial role of sanitation entrepreneurship and the need for outside engagement’, Enterprise Development and Microfinance 21(3): 185–204 <https://doi.org/10.3362/1755-1986.2010.017>.

Schaub-Jones, D. and Valfrey-Visser, B. (2009) ‘Supporting private entrepreneurs to deliver public goods: engaging sanitation entrepreneurs’, in 34th WEDC International Conference, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) [online], WEDC, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK <https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/Supporting_private_entrepreneurs_to_deliver_public_goods_engaging_sanitation_entrepreneurs/9585419> [accessed 23 April 2020].

Trémolet, S. (2012) Sanitation Markets: Using Economics to Improve the Delivery of Services along the Sanitation Value Chain, Sanitation Markets Pathfinder Paper, DFID, London.

Trémolet, S., Prat, M.-A., Tincani, L., Ross, I., Mujica, A., Burr, P. and Evans, B. (2015) Value for Money Analysis of DFID-funded WASH Programmes in Six Countries, Oxford Policy Management, Oxford.

Tumwebaze, I.K., Orach, C.G., Niwagaba, C., Luthi, C. and Mosler, H.-J. (2013) ‘Sanitation facilities in Kampala slums, Uganda: users’ satisfaction and determinant factors’, International Journal of Environmental Health Research 23(3): 191–204 <https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2012.713095>.

UNICEF (2014) Evaluation of the WASH Sector Strategy ‘Community Approaches to Total Sanitation’ (CATS), UNICEF, New York.

UNICEF (2016) Strategy for Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene 2016–30, UNICEF, New York.

UNICEF and Word Health Organization (2015) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment, UNICEF, New York.

USAID (2014) ‘USAID approach to improving sanitation’ [online], USAID, Washington, DC <https://2012-2017.usaid.gov/what-we-do/water-and-sanitation/advancing-water-supply-sanitation-and-hygiene/improving-sanitation> [accessed 23 April 2020].

USAID (2018a) An Examination of CLTS’s Contributions toward Universal Sanitation, USAID Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Partnerships and Learning for Sustainability (WASHPaLS) Project, Washington, DC.

USAID (2018b) Scaling Market-Based Sanitation: Desk Review on Market-based Rural Sanitation Development Programs, USAID Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Partnerships and Learning for Sustainability (WASHPaLS) Project, Washington, DC.

Venkataramanan, V., Crocker, J., Karon, A. and Bartram, J. (2018) ‘Community-led total sanitation: a mixed-methods systematic review of evidence and its quality’, Environmental Health Perspectives 126(2): 026001 <https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1965> [accessed 16 March 2020].

Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) and International Finance Corporation (IFC) (2013) Tapping the Markets: Opportunities for Domestic Investments in Sanitation for the Poor (Conference Edition) [pdf], World Bank, Washington, DC <https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/DPSP-Sanitation-Report-Conference-Edition-WSP-August-2013.pdf> [accessed 23 April 2020].

White, Z. and Burr, P. (2016) Value for Money Study in Global Sanitation Fund Programmes: Synthesis Report [pdf], Oxford Policy Management and WSSCC, Oxford, UK <https://www.wsscc.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/OPM-GSF-VfM-sysnthesis.pdf> [accessed 23 April 2020].

WHO (2018) WHO Guidelines on Sanitation and Health, WHO, Geneva.

World Bank (2018) ‘Sanitation strategy’ [online], World Bank, Washington, DC <https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/sanitation#2> [accessed 18 November 2018].

Ahmed, R., Hanchett, S., Kahn, M.H., Krieger, L. and Kullmann, C.P. (2011) Long-term Sustainability of Improved Sanitation in Rural Bangladesh, Water and Sanitation Program Technical Paper, Report No. 71746, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Black, M. and Fawcett, B. (2008) The Last Taboo: Opening the Door on the Global Sanitation Crisis, Earthscan Publications, London.

Cairncross, S. (1992) Sanitation and Water Supply: Practical Lessons from the Decade, Water and Sanitation Program Discussion Paper Series, Report No. 9, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Cairncross, S. (2004) The Case for Marketing Sanitation, Water and Sanitation Program Field Note, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Crocker, J., Saywell, D., Shields, K.F., Kolsky, P. and Bartram, J. (2017) ‘The true costs of participatory sanitation: evidence from community-led total sanitation studies in Ghana and Ethiopia’, Science of the Total Environment 601-602: 1075–83 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.279>.

CS WASH Fund and Aguaconsult (2018) WASH Market Facilitation: Learning Brief from Research into Effectiveness of WASH Approaches and Innovations in the Civil Society WASH Fund, CS WASH Fund, DFAT, Canberra, Australia.

De Buck, E., Van Remoortel, H., Hannes, K., Govender, T., Naidoo, S., Avau, B., Vande Veegaete, A., Musekiwa, A., Lutje, V., Cargo, M., Mosler, H.J., Vandekerckhove, P. and Young, T. (2017) Approaches to Promote Handwashing and Sanitation Behaviour Change in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Mixed Method Systematic Review [pdf], 3ie Systematic Review 36, London, International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie) <https://www.3ieimpact.org/sites/default/files/2019-01/SR%2036-Behaviour-change-sanitation_2.pdf> [accessed 23 April 2020].

Devine, J. and Sijbesma, C. (2011) ‘Sustainability of rural sanitation marketing in Vietnam: findings from a new case study’, Waterlines 30(1): 52–60 <https://doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2011.005>.

Dumpert, J. and Perez, E. (2015) ‘Going beyond mason training: enabling, facilitating, and engaging rural sanitation markets for the base of the pyramid’, Waterlines 34(3): 210–26 <https://doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2015.021>.

Dwan, P. and Bond, M. (2016) Evaluation Report: WaterSHED’s Hands-Off Sanitation Marketing Program, WaterSHED, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Gero, A., Carrard, N., Murta, J. and Willetts, J. (2014) ‘Private and social enterprise roles in water, sanitation and hygiene for the poor: a systematic review’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 4(3): 331–45 <https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2014.003>.

Heierli, U., Hartmann, A., Munger, F. and Walther, P. (2004) Sanitation is a Business: Approaches for Demand-oriented Policies, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, Bern, Switzerland.

Iarossi, G. (2009) ‘Benchmarking Africa’s costs and competitiveness’, in The Africa Competitiveness Report, pp. 83–107, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Jenkins, M. and Pedi, D. (2013a) Equity in Sanitation Marketing: How can we Support the Market to Reach the Poorest? UNICEF Sanitation Marketing Learning Series, Guidance Note 8, UNICEF, New York.

Jenkins, M. and Pedi, D. (2013b) Situation Analysis: How Do I Know if Sanitation Marketing Will Work in My Country? UNICEF Sanitation Marketing Learning Series, Guidance Note 1, UNICEF, New York.

Jenkins, M., Freeman, M. and Routray, P. (2014) ‘Measuring the safety of excreta disposal behavior in India with the New Safe San Index: reliability, validity and utility’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 11(8): 8319–46 <https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110808319>.

Kappauf, L. (2011) Opportunities and Constraints for more Sustainable Sanitation through Sanitation Marketing in Malawi: Case Study from Mzimba and Lilongwe Districts, Loughborough University, Loughborough.

Kema, K., Semali, I., Mkuwa, S., Kagonji, I., Temu, F., Ilako, F. and Mkuye, M. (2012) ‘Factors affecting the utilisation of improved ventilated latrines among communities in Mtwara Rural District, Tanzania’, Pan African Medical Journal 13(Suppl 1): 4.

Kolsky, P., Perez, E. and Trémolet, S. (2010) Financing On-Site Sanitation for the Poor: A Six Country Comparative Review and Analysis, Water and Sanitation Program Working Paper, Report No. 56943, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Mehta, M. (2008) Assessing Microfinance for Water and Sanitation: Exploring Opportunities for Sustainable Scaling Up, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, WA.

Murta, J., Foster, T. and Willetts, J. (2017) Learning Brief: Piloting Pro-Poor Support Strategies in Banteay Meas District, Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology and SNV, Sydney, Australia.

Murta, J., Willetts, J. and Triwahyudi, W. (2018) ‘Sanitation entrepreneurship in rural Indonesia: a closer look’, Environment, Development and Sustainability 20(1): 343–59 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-9883-7>.

Pedi, D. and Touch, P. (2010) WASH Marketing Project, Kampong Speu Baseline Survey, USAID WaterSHED Asia, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Pedi, D., Jenkins, M., McLellan, L., Aun, H. and Revell, G. (2012) ‘Characteristics of household sanitation use and demand in CLTS and non-CLTS villages: a comparative study from rural Cambodia’, in UNC Water & Health Conference, UNC Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC.

Pedi, D., Sophanna, M., Sophea, P. and Jenkins, M. (2014) Rural Consumer Sanitation Adoption Study: An Analysis of Rural Consumers in the Emerging Sanitation Market in Cambodia, WaterSHED Cambodia, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

PSI India (2017) ‘Developing markets for sanitation: where to start?’ [webinar], SuSanA and BEAM Exchange <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ReZTD8XCOGU&t=1375s> [accessed 29 March 2019].

Revell, G. (2017) ‘Building the market for sanitation with planned obsolescence’ [online], WaterSHED <http://watershedasia.org/hands-off-planned-obsolescence/> [accessed 12 December 2018].

Rodgers, A.F., Ajono, L.A., Gyapong, J.O., Hagan, M. and Emerson, P.M. (2007) ‘Characteristics of latrine promotion participants and non-participants; inspection of latrines; and perceptions of household latrines in Northern Ghana’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 12(6): 772–82 <https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2007.01848.x>.

Salter, D. (2008) Identifying Constraints to Increasing Sanitation Coverage: Sanitation Demand and Supply in Cambodia, Water and Sanitation Program Field Note, World Bank, Washington, DC.

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