Family, territory, nation: post-neoliberal agroecological scaling in Nicaragua
Agroecological scaling-up, as the words suggest, is best achieved as a process constructed ‘from below’. How then to understand the political dimension of agroecological scaling, if not also as a popular process of democratization of food systems? This article explores the political and social dimensions of the Nicaraguan process of agroecological scaling, using the frame of food sovereignty, or the right of peoples and nations to define, build, and defend their own food system. As part of the ALBA alliance of Latin American countries, Nicaragua’s government positions itself to the political left of many of the more neoliberal governments in the region. Post-neoliberalism provides a historical context for the repositioning of the state in regard to peasant and family agriculture, rural education, and social economies. As agroecological knowledge is re-produced, shared and multiplied, agroecological organizational structures become essential to scaling-out and scaling-up processes. We discuss the role of the state in determining the popular diffusion of agroecological methods and thinking across the Nicaraguan countryside.Araujo, S. and Godek, W. (2014) ‘Opportunities and challenges for food sovereignty policies in Latin America: the case of Nicaragua’, in N.C.S Lambek, P. Claeys, A. Wong and L. Brilmayer (eds.), Rethinking Food Systems: Structural Challenges, New Strategies and the Law, pp. 53–74, London: Springer.
Ban, C. (2012) Brazil’s liberal neo-developmentalism: new paradigm or edited orthodoxy? Review of International Political Economy 20(2): 1–34 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2012.660183>.
Bernstein, H. (2010) Class Dynamics of Agrarian Change, Nova Scotia: Fernwood Publishing.
Bonino, J.C. (2016) Globalización a la Centroamericana, Managua: Alcaldía de Managua.
Chan, M.L. and Freyre, E.F. (2012) Unfinished Puzzle. Cuban Agriculture: The Challenges, Lessons and Opportunities, Oakland, CA: Food First.
CNE (2016) Tercer Informe de Resultados Electorales, 7 November 2016, Managua: Consejo Nacional Electoral.
Declaration of Nyeleni (2015) Declaration of the International Forum on Agroecology, Nyéléni, Mali, 27 February 2015.
FAO (2016) Agroecology Knowledge Hub, Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Fernandez, Mendez, and Bacon (2013) ‘Seasonal hunger in coffee communities: Integrated analysis of livelihoods, agroecology, and food sovereignty with smallholders of Mexico and Nicaragua, Available at: <https://www.uvm.edu/~agroecol/FernandezEtAl_YaleFoodSovConf42_2013.pdf>
Friedmann, H. and McMichael, P. (1989) ‘Agriculture and the state system: the rise and fall of national agricultures, 1870 to the present’, Sociologia Ruralis 29(2): 93–117.
Giraldo, O. and P. Rosset (2016), La agroecología en una encrucijada: entre la institucionalidad y los movimientos sociales. Guaju Matinhos 2(1): 14–37.
Gliessman, S. (1998) Agroecology: Ecological Processes in Sustainable Agriculture, Boca Ratón, FL: CRC Press.
Guharay, F. (2012). ‘Sistematizacion de experiencias y aprendizajes de campo sobre bancos comunitarios de semilla por organismos nicaraguences aliados en la plataforma zona alta de matagalpa’ in Bancos comunitarios de semilla, pp. 46. Available at: <http://simas.org.ni/media/1339431618_Web%20Banco%20semillas%20revista.pdf>
Godek, W. (2015) ‘Challenges for food sovereignty policy making: the case of Nicaragua’s Law 693’, Third World Quarterly 36(3): 526–43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.1005437>.
Gonzalez Manchón, B. and Macleod, M (2010), ‘Challenging gender inequality in farmers' organisations in Nicaragua’. Gender and Development 18(3): 373–386.
Hanemann, U. (2006) ‘Nicaragua’s literacy campaign’, paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2006, Literacy for Life, Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Education.
Holt Giménez, E. (2006) Campesino a Campesino: Voices from Latin America’s Farmer to Farmer Movement for Sustainable Agriculture, Oakland, CA: Food First Books.
IAASTD (2008) Agriculture at a Crossroads, International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD), Washington, DC: Island Press.
INTA (2013) Guía Metodológica: Organización de Bancos Comunitarios de Semillas, 1st edn, Managua: INTA.
INTA (2015) Guía del Promotor y la Promotora Rural Agropecuario, 5th edn, Managua: INTA.
International Renewable Energy Agency (2015) Nicaragua: Renewables Readiness Assessment. Executive Summary, Abu Dhabi: IRENA.
León, I. (2013) ‘La ALBA como horizonte’, in I. León (ed.), La ALBA: el horizonte latinoamericano del Siglo XXI, Quito: ALAI.
LVC (2015) Agroecología campesina por la soberanía alimentaria y la Madre Tierra. Experiencias de La Vía Campesina, Cuaderno 7. Edición especial para el V Congreso Latinoamericano de Agroecología de SOCLA, October 2015.
McCune, N.M., Rosset, P., Cruz Salazar, T., Morales, H. and Saldivar, A. (2016) ‘Mediated territoriality: rural workers and the efforts to scale out agroecology in Nicaragua’, The Journal of Peasant Studies [online] 10 November 2016: 1–23 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2016.1233868>.
McMichael, P. (2005) ‘Global development and the corporate food regime’, in F. Buttel and P. McMichael (eds.), New Directions in the Sociology of Global Development (Research in Rural Sociology and Development), vol. 11, pp. 265–99, Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Machín Sosa, B., Roque Jaime, A.M., Ávila Lozano, D. and Rosset, P. (2010) Revolución Agroecológica: el Movimiento Campesino a Campesino de la ANAP en Cuba, La Habana: Asociación Nacional de Agricultores Pequeños y La Vía Campesina.
Martínez, M.E. and Rosset, P. (2014) ‘Diálogo de Saberes in La Vía Campesina: food sovereignty and agroecology’, The Journal of Peasant Studies 41(6): 979–97 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2013.872632>.
Montenegro, M. (2015) ‘Agroecology can help fix our broken food system: here’s how’, Ensia 14(1) [online] <https://ensia.com/voices/agroecology-can-help-fix-our-broken-food-system-heres-how/> [accessed 12 December 2016].
Mpofu, E. (2016) ‘Agroecology for gender equality’, Farming Matters 32(3): 23.
National Human Development Plan of Nicaragua (PNDH), (2012), Plan Nacional de Desarrollo humano Actualizado 2012–2016. Available at <http://www.pndh.gob.ni/>
Núñez-Soto, O. (2015) Sandinismo y Socialismo, Managua: Fondo Cultural Darío y Sandino.
Odriozola, S., Fernández, O. and García, M. (2013) ‘La transición socialista y el modelo económico y social’, in M. García-Rabelo (ed.), Modelo económico y social cubano: nociones generales, Havana: Editorial UH.
Osejo, N. (2014) ‘Escuelas de campo para transformar la realidad productiva de Nicaragua’ [online], National Agrarian University <www.una.edu.ni/index.php/direcciones/direccion-comunicacion/271-escuelas-de-campo-para-transformar-la-realidad-productiva-de-nicaragua> [accessed 21 February 2016].
Patel, R. (2013) Stuffed and Starved: From Farm to Fork, the Hidden Battle for the World Food System, London: Portobello Books.
Pinhiera-Barbosa, L. (2015) Educación, Resistencia y Movimientos Sociales: la práxis educativo-política de los Sin Tierra y de los Zapatistas, Mexico City: LIBRUNAM.
Rosset, P. (2003) ‘Food sovereignty: global rallying cry of farmer movements’, Food First Backgrounder 9(4): 1–4.
Rosset, P.M., Sosa, B.M., Roque Jaime, A.M.R. and Ávila Lozano, R.A. (2011) ‘The Campesino-to-Campesino agroecology movement of ANAP in Cuba: social process methodology in the construction of sustainable peasant agriculture and food sovereignty’, Journal of Peasant Studies 38(1): 161–91 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2010.538584>.
Santos, B. de Souza (2009) Descolonizar el saber, reinventar el poder, Montevideo: Ediciones Trilce.
UNDP (1998) Human Development Report 1998, New York: UNDP.
Wilson, B. (2013) ‘Breaking the chains: coffee, crisis, and farmworker struggle in Nicaragua’, Environment and Planning 45: 2592–609 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/a46262>.
Wittman, H. (2010) ‘Reconnecting agriculture and the environment: food sovereignty and the agrarian basis of ecological citizenship’, in H. Wittman, A. Desmarais and N. Wiebe (eds.), Food Sovereignty: Reconnecting Food, Nature and Community, Oakland, CA: Food First.
World Economic Forum (2015) The Global Gender Gap Report 2015, Insight Report, Geneva: WEF.
Araujo, S. and Godek, W. (2014) ‘Opportunities and challenges for food sovereignty policies in Latin America: the case of Nicaragua’, in N.C.S Lambek, P. Claeys, A. Wong and L. Brilmayer (eds.), Rethinking Food Systems: Structural Challenges, New Strategies and the Law, pp. 53–74, London: Springer.
Ban, C. (2012) Brazil’s liberal neo-developmentalism: new paradigm or edited orthodoxy? Review of International Political Economy 20(2): 1–34 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2012.660183>.
Bernstein, H. (2010) Class Dynamics of Agrarian Change, Nova Scotia: Fernwood Publishing.
Bonino, J.C. (2016) Globalización a la Centroamericana, Managua: Alcaldía de Managua.
Chan, M.L. and Freyre, E.F. (2012) Unfinished Puzzle. Cuban Agriculture: The Challenges, Lessons and Opportunities, Oakland, CA: Food First.
CNE (2016) Tercer Informe de Resultados Electorales, 7 November 2016, Managua: Consejo Nacional Electoral.
Declaration of Nyeleni (2015) Declaration of the International Forum on Agroecology, Nyéléni, Mali, 27 February 2015.
FAO (2016) Agroecology Knowledge Hub, Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Fernandez, Mendez, and Bacon (2013) ‘Seasonal hunger in coffee communities: Integrated analysis of livelihoods, agroecology, and food sovereignty with smallholders of Mexico and Nicaragua, Available at: <https://www.uvm.edu/~agroecol/FernandezEtAl_YaleFoodSovConf42_2013.pdf>
Friedmann, H. and McMichael, P. (1989) ‘Agriculture and the state system: the rise and fall of national agricultures, 1870 to the present’, Sociologia Ruralis 29(2): 93–117.
Giraldo, O. and P. Rosset (2016), La agroecología en una encrucijada: entre la institucionalidad y los movimientos sociales. Guaju Matinhos 2(1): 14–37.
Gliessman, S. (1998) Agroecology: Ecological Processes in Sustainable Agriculture, Boca Ratón, FL: CRC Press.
Guharay, F. (2012). ‘Sistematizacion de experiencias y aprendizajes de campo sobre bancos comunitarios de semilla por organismos nicaraguences aliados en la plataforma zona alta de matagalpa’ in Bancos comunitarios de semilla, pp. 46. Available at: <http://simas.org.ni/media/1339431618_Web%20Banco%20semillas%20revista.pdf>
Godek, W. (2015) ‘Challenges for food sovereignty policy making: the case of Nicaragua’s Law 693’, Third World Quarterly 36(3): 526–43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.1005437>.
Gonzalez Manchón, B. and Macleod, M (2010), ‘Challenging gender inequality in farmers' organisations in Nicaragua’. Gender and Development 18(3): 373–386.
Hanemann, U. (2006) ‘Nicaragua’s literacy campaign’, paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2006, Literacy for Life, Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Education.
Holt Giménez, E. (2006) Campesino a Campesino: Voices from Latin America’s Farmer to Farmer Movement for Sustainable Agriculture, Oakland, CA: Food First Books.
IAASTD (2008) Agriculture at a Crossroads, International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD), Washington, DC: Island Press.
INTA (2013) Guía Metodológica: Organización de Bancos Comunitarios de Semillas, 1st edn, Managua: INTA.
INTA (2015) Guía del Promotor y la Promotora Rural Agropecuario, 5th edn, Managua: INTA.
International Renewable Energy Agency (2015) Nicaragua: Renewables Readiness Assessment. Executive Summary, Abu Dhabi: IRENA.
León, I. (2013) ‘La ALBA como horizonte’, in I. León (ed.), La ALBA: el horizonte latinoamericano del Siglo XXI, Quito: ALAI.
LVC (2015) Agroecología campesina por la soberanía alimentaria y la Madre Tierra. Experiencias de La Vía Campesina, Cuaderno 7. Edición especial para el V Congreso Latinoamericano de Agroecología de SOCLA, October 2015.
McCune, N.M., Rosset, P., Cruz Salazar, T., Morales, H. and Saldivar, A. (2016) ‘Mediated territoriality: rural workers and the efforts to scale out agroecology in Nicaragua’, The Journal of Peasant Studies [online] 10 November 2016: 1–23 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2016.1233868>.
McMichael, P. (2005) ‘Global development and the corporate food regime’, in F. Buttel and P. McMichael (eds.), New Directions in the Sociology of Global Development (Research in Rural Sociology and Development), vol. 11, pp. 265–99, Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Machín Sosa, B., Roque Jaime, A.M., Ávila Lozano, D. and Rosset, P. (2010) Revolución Agroecológica: el Movimiento Campesino a Campesino de la ANAP en Cuba, La Habana: Asociación Nacional de Agricultores Pequeños y La Vía Campesina.
Martínez, M.E. and Rosset, P. (2014) ‘Diálogo de Saberes in La Vía Campesina: food sovereignty and agroecology’, The Journal of Peasant Studies 41(6): 979–97 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2013.872632>.
Montenegro, M. (2015) ‘Agroecology can help fix our broken food system: here’s how’, Ensia 14(1) [online] <https://ensia.com/voices/agroecology-can-help-fix-our-broken-food-system-heres-how/> [accessed 12 December 2016].
Mpofu, E. (2016) ‘Agroecology for gender equality’, Farming Matters 32(3): 23.
National Human Development Plan of Nicaragua (PNDH), (2012), Plan Nacional de Desarrollo humano Actualizado 2012–2016. Available at <http://www.pndh.gob.ni/>
Núñez-Soto, O. (2015) Sandinismo y Socialismo, Managua: Fondo Cultural Darío y Sandino.
Odriozola, S., Fernández, O. and García, M. (2013) ‘La transición socialista y el modelo económico y social’, in M. García-Rabelo (ed.), Modelo económico y social cubano: nociones generales, Havana: Editorial UH.
Osejo, N. (2014) ‘Escuelas de campo para transformar la realidad productiva de Nicaragua’ [online], National Agrarian University <www.una.edu.ni/index.php/direcciones/direccion-comunicacion/271-escuelas-de-campo-para-transformar-la-realidad-productiva-de-nicaragua> [accessed 21 February 2016].
Patel, R. (2013) Stuffed and Starved: From Farm to Fork, the Hidden Battle for the World Food System, London: Portobello Books.
Pinhiera-Barbosa, L. (2015) Educación, Resistencia y Movimientos Sociales: la práxis educativo-política de los Sin Tierra y de los Zapatistas, Mexico City: LIBRUNAM.
Rosset, P. (2003) ‘Food sovereignty: global rallying cry of farmer movements’, Food First Backgrounder 9(4): 1–4.
Rosset, P.M., Sosa, B.M., Roque Jaime, A.M.R. and Ávila Lozano, R.A. (2011) ‘The Campesino-to-Campesino agroecology movement of ANAP in Cuba: social process methodology in the construction of sustainable peasant agriculture and food sovereignty’, Journal of Peasant Studies 38(1): 161–91 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2010.538584>.
Santos, B. de Souza (2009) Descolonizar el saber, reinventar el poder, Montevideo: Ediciones Trilce.
UNDP (1998) Human Development Report 1998, New York: UNDP.
Wilson, B. (2013) ‘Breaking the chains: coffee, crisis, and farmworker struggle in Nicaragua’, Environment and Planning 45: 2592–609 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/a46262>.
Wittman, H. (2010) ‘Reconnecting agriculture and the environment: food sovereignty and the agrarian basis of ecological citizenship’, in H. Wittman, A. Desmarais and N. Wiebe (eds.), Food Sovereignty: Reconnecting Food, Nature and Community, Oakland, CA: Food First.
World Economic Forum (2015) The Global Gender Gap Report 2015, Insight Report, Geneva: WEF.
Araujo, S. and Godek, W. (2014) ‘Opportunities and challenges for food sovereignty policies in Latin America: the case of Nicaragua’, in N.C.S Lambek, P. Claeys, A. Wong and L. Brilmayer (eds.), Rethinking Food Systems: Structural Challenges, New Strategies and the Law, pp. 53–74, London: Springer.
Ban, C. (2012) Brazil’s liberal neo-developmentalism: new paradigm or edited orthodoxy? Review of International Political Economy 20(2): 1–34 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2012.660183>.
Bernstein, H. (2010) Class Dynamics of Agrarian Change, Nova Scotia: Fernwood Publishing.
Bonino, J.C. (2016) Globalización a la Centroamericana, Managua: Alcaldía de Managua.
Chan, M.L. and Freyre, E.F. (2012) Unfinished Puzzle. Cuban Agriculture: The Challenges, Lessons and Opportunities, Oakland, CA: Food First.
CNE (2016) Tercer Informe de Resultados Electorales, 7 November 2016, Managua: Consejo Nacional Electoral.
Declaration of Nyeleni (2015) Declaration of the International Forum on Agroecology, Nyéléni, Mali, 27 February 2015.
FAO (2016) Agroecology Knowledge Hub, Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Fernandez, Mendez, and Bacon (2013) ‘Seasonal hunger in coffee communities: Integrated analysis of livelihoods, agroecology, and food sovereignty with smallholders of Mexico and Nicaragua, Available at: <https://www.uvm.edu/~agroecol/FernandezEtAl_YaleFoodSovConf42_2013.pdf>
Friedmann, H. and McMichael, P. (1989) ‘Agriculture and the state system: the rise and fall of national agricultures, 1870 to the present’, Sociologia Ruralis 29(2): 93–117.
Giraldo, O. and P. Rosset (2016), La agroecología en una encrucijada: entre la institucionalidad y los movimientos sociales. Guaju Matinhos 2(1): 14–37.
Gliessman, S. (1998) Agroecology: Ecological Processes in Sustainable Agriculture, Boca Ratón, FL: CRC Press.
Guharay, F. (2012). ‘Sistematizacion de experiencias y aprendizajes de campo sobre bancos comunitarios de semilla por organismos nicaraguences aliados en la plataforma zona alta de matagalpa’ in Bancos comunitarios de semilla, pp. 46. Available at: <http://simas.org.ni/media/1339431618_Web%20Banco%20semillas%20revista.pdf>
Godek, W. (2015) ‘Challenges for food sovereignty policy making: the case of Nicaragua’s Law 693’, Third World Quarterly 36(3): 526–43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.1005437>.
Gonzalez Manchón, B. and Macleod, M (2010), ‘Challenging gender inequality in farmers' organisations in Nicaragua’. Gender and Development 18(3): 373–386.
Hanemann, U. (2006) ‘Nicaragua’s literacy campaign’, paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2006, Literacy for Life, Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Education.
Holt Giménez, E. (2006) Campesino a Campesino: Voices from Latin America’s Farmer to Farmer Movement for Sustainable Agriculture, Oakland, CA: Food First Books.
IAASTD (2008) Agriculture at a Crossroads, International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD), Washington, DC: Island Press.
INTA (2013) Guía Metodológica: Organización de Bancos Comunitarios de Semillas, 1st edn, Managua: INTA.
INTA (2015) Guía del Promotor y la Promotora Rural Agropecuario, 5th edn, Managua: INTA.
International Renewable Energy Agency (2015) Nicaragua: Renewables Readiness Assessment. Executive Summary, Abu Dhabi: IRENA.
León, I. (2013) ‘La ALBA como horizonte’, in I. León (ed.), La ALBA: el horizonte latinoamericano del Siglo XXI, Quito: ALAI.
LVC (2015) Agroecología campesina por la soberanía alimentaria y la Madre Tierra. Experiencias de La Vía Campesina, Cuaderno 7. Edición especial para el V Congreso Latinoamericano de Agroecología de SOCLA, October 2015.
McCune, N.M., Rosset, P., Cruz Salazar, T., Morales, H. and Saldivar, A. (2016) ‘Mediated territoriality: rural workers and the efforts to scale out agroecology in Nicaragua’, The Journal of Peasant Studies [online] 10 November 2016: 1–23 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2016.1233868>.
McMichael, P. (2005) ‘Global development and the corporate food regime’, in F. Buttel and P. McMichael (eds.), New Directions in the Sociology of Global Development (Research in Rural Sociology and Development), vol. 11, pp. 265–99, Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Machín Sosa, B., Roque Jaime, A.M., Ávila Lozano, D. and Rosset, P. (2010) Revolución Agroecológica: el Movimiento Campesino a Campesino de la ANAP en Cuba, La Habana: Asociación Nacional de Agricultores Pequeños y La Vía Campesina.
Martínez, M.E. and Rosset, P. (2014) ‘Diálogo de Saberes in La Vía Campesina: food sovereignty and agroecology’, The Journal of Peasant Studies 41(6): 979–97 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2013.872632>.
Montenegro, M. (2015) ‘Agroecology can help fix our broken food system: here’s how’, Ensia 14(1) [online] <https://ensia.com/voices/agroecology-can-help-fix-our-broken-food-system-heres-how/> [accessed 12 December 2016].
Mpofu, E. (2016) ‘Agroecology for gender equality’, Farming Matters 32(3): 23.
National Human Development Plan of Nicaragua (PNDH), (2012), Plan Nacional de Desarrollo humano Actualizado 2012–2016. Available at <http://www.pndh.gob.ni/>
Núñez-Soto, O. (2015) Sandinismo y Socialismo, Managua: Fondo Cultural Darío y Sandino.
Odriozola, S., Fernández, O. and García, M. (2013) ‘La transición socialista y el modelo económico y social’, in M. García-Rabelo (ed.), Modelo económico y social cubano: nociones generales, Havana: Editorial UH.
Osejo, N. (2014) ‘Escuelas de campo para transformar la realidad productiva de Nicaragua’ [online], National Agrarian University <www.una.edu.ni/index.php/direcciones/direccion-comunicacion/271-escuelas-de-campo-para-transformar-la-realidad-productiva-de-nicaragua> [accessed 21 February 2016].
Patel, R. (2013) Stuffed and Starved: From Farm to Fork, the Hidden Battle for the World Food System, London: Portobello Books.
Pinhiera-Barbosa, L. (2015) Educación, Resistencia y Movimientos Sociales: la práxis educativo-política de los Sin Tierra y de los Zapatistas, Mexico City: LIBRUNAM.
Rosset, P. (2003) ‘Food sovereignty: global rallying cry of farmer movements’, Food First Backgrounder 9(4): 1–4.
Rosset, P.M., Sosa, B.M., Roque Jaime, A.M.R. and Ávila Lozano, R.A. (2011) ‘The Campesino-to-Campesino agroecology movement of ANAP in Cuba: social process methodology in the construction of sustainable peasant agriculture and food sovereignty’, Journal of Peasant Studies 38(1): 161–91 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2010.538584>.
Santos, B. de Souza (2009) Descolonizar el saber, reinventar el poder, Montevideo: Ediciones Trilce.
UNDP (1998) Human Development Report 1998, New York: UNDP.
Wilson, B. (2013) ‘Breaking the chains: coffee, crisis, and farmworker struggle in Nicaragua’, Environment and Planning 45: 2592–609 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/a46262>.
Wittman, H. (2010) ‘Reconnecting agriculture and the environment: food sovereignty and the agrarian basis of ecological citizenship’, in H. Wittman, A. Desmarais and N. Wiebe (eds.), Food Sovereignty: Reconnecting Food, Nature and Community, Oakland, CA: Food First.
World Economic Forum (2015) The Global Gender Gap Report 2015, Insight Report, Geneva: WEF.
Araujo, S. and Godek, W. (2014) ‘Opportunities and challenges for food sovereignty policies in Latin America: the case of Nicaragua’, in N.C.S Lambek, P. Claeys, A. Wong and L. Brilmayer (eds.), Rethinking Food Systems: Structural Challenges, New Strategies and the Law, pp. 53–74, London: Springer.
Ban, C. (2012) Brazil’s liberal neo-developmentalism: new paradigm or edited orthodoxy? Review of International Political Economy 20(2): 1–34 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2012.660183>.
Bernstein, H. (2010) Class Dynamics of Agrarian Change, Nova Scotia: Fernwood Publishing.
Bonino, J.C. (2016) Globalización a la Centroamericana, Managua: Alcaldía de Managua.
Chan, M.L. and Freyre, E.F. (2012) Unfinished Puzzle. Cuban Agriculture: The Challenges, Lessons and Opportunities, Oakland, CA: Food First.
CNE (2016) Tercer Informe de Resultados Electorales, 7 November 2016, Managua: Consejo Nacional Electoral.
Declaration of Nyeleni (2015) Declaration of the International Forum on Agroecology, Nyéléni, Mali, 27 February 2015.
FAO (2016) Agroecology Knowledge Hub, Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Fernandez, Mendez, and Bacon (2013) ‘Seasonal hunger in coffee communities: Integrated analysis of livelihoods, agroecology, and food sovereignty with smallholders of Mexico and Nicaragua, Available at: <https://www.uvm.edu/~agroecol/FernandezEtAl_YaleFoodSovConf42_2013.pdf>
Friedmann, H. and McMichael, P. (1989) ‘Agriculture and the state system: the rise and fall of national agricultures, 1870 to the present’, Sociologia Ruralis 29(2): 93–117.
Giraldo, O. and P. Rosset (2016), La agroecología en una encrucijada: entre la institucionalidad y los movimientos sociales. Guaju Matinhos 2(1): 14–37.
Gliessman, S. (1998) Agroecology: Ecological Processes in Sustainable Agriculture, Boca Ratón, FL: CRC Press.
Guharay, F. (2012). ‘Sistematizacion de experiencias y aprendizajes de campo sobre bancos comunitarios de semilla por organismos nicaraguences aliados en la plataforma zona alta de matagalpa’ in Bancos comunitarios de semilla, pp. 46. Available at: <http://simas.org.ni/media/1339431618_Web%20Banco%20semillas%20revista.pdf>
Godek, W. (2015) ‘Challenges for food sovereignty policy making: the case of Nicaragua’s Law 693’, Third World Quarterly 36(3): 526–43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.1005437>.
Gonzalez Manchón, B. and Macleod, M (2010), ‘Challenging gender inequality in farmers' organisations in Nicaragua’. Gender and Development 18(3): 373–386.
Hanemann, U. (2006) ‘Nicaragua’s literacy campaign’, paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2006, Literacy for Life, Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Education.
Holt Giménez, E. (2006) Campesino a Campesino: Voices from Latin America’s Farmer to Farmer Movement for Sustainable Agriculture, Oakland, CA: Food First Books.
IAASTD (2008) Agriculture at a Crossroads, International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD), Washington, DC: Island Press.
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