Developing more inclusive and sustainable agricultural value chains at scale is a development priority. The ‘Cassava: Adding Value for Africa’ project has supported the development of value chains for high quality cassava flour (HQCF) in Ghana, Tanzania, Uganda, Nigeria, and Malawi to improve the incomes and livelihoods of smallholder households, including women. The project focused on three key interventions: 1) ensuring a consistent supply of raw materials; 2) developing viable intermediaries as secondary processors or bulking agents; and 3) driving market demand. Scaling-up experiences are presented, guided by an analysis of drivers (ideas/models, vision and leadership, incentives and accountability), the enabling context (institutions, infrastructure, technology, financial, policy and regulations, partnerships and leverage, social context, environment), and the monitoring, evaluation, and learning process. Lessons for scaling up of similar value chain interventions are presented. These highlight the tension between rapid development of value chains and achieving equity and sustainability goals; the need for holistic approaches to capacity strengthening of diverse value chain actors; the role of strengthening equitable business relationships and networks as a vital element of scaling processes; and how informed engagement with government policy and regulatory issues is key, but often challenging given conflicting pressures on policymakers. The scaling process should be market-led, but the level and type of public sector and civil society investment needs careful consideration by donors, governments, and others, in particular less visible investments in fostering relationships and trust. Addressing uncertainties around smallholder-inclusive value chain development requires adaptive management and facilitation of the scaling process.

African Development Bank (AfDB) (2011) The Middle of the Pyramid: Dynamics of the Middle Class in Africa [pdf], Market Brief, 20 April 2011, Abidjan: AfDB <www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/The%20Middle%20of%20the%20Pyramid_The%20Middle%20of%20the%20Pyramid.pdf> [accessed 4 May 2014].

Angelucci, F., Balié, J., Gourichon, H., Mas Aparisi, A. and Witwer, M. (2013) Monitoring and Analysing Food and Agricultural Policies in Africa: Synthesis Report 2013 [pdf], MAFAP Synthesis Report Series, Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/docrep/019/i3513e/i3513e.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

Barrett, C.B. (2008) ‘Smallholder market participation: concepts and evidence from eastern and southern Africa’, Food Policy 33(4): 299–317 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2007.10.005>.

Campbell, R. (2010) Implementation Best Practices for Value Chain Development Projects, MicroREPORT #167, September 2010, Washington, DC: USAID.

Chandy, L., Ledlie, N. and Penciakova, V. (2013) The Final Countdown: Prospects for Ending Extreme Poverty by 2030 [pdf], Policy Paper 2013-04, Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution <www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/reports/2013/04/ending%20extreme%20poverty%20chandy/the_final_countdown.pdf> [accessed 4 May 2014].

Chang, H.-J. (2009) ‘Rethinking public policy in agriculture: lessons from history, distant and recent’, Journal of Peasant Studies 36:3,477–515 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150903142741>.

Donovan, J., Franzel, S., Cunha, M., Gyau, A. and Mithöfer, D. (2015) ‘Guides for value chain development: a comparative review’, Journal of Agribusiness in Developing and Emerging Economies 5(1): 2–23 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JADEE-07-2013-0025>.

Fermont, A.M., van Asten P.J.A. and Giller, K.E. (2008) ‘Increasing land pressure in East Africa: the changing role of cassava and consequences for sustainability of farming systems’, Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 128: 239–50 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2008.06.009>.

Francesconi, G.N. and Wouterse, F. (2011) The Renewed Case for Farmers’ Cooperatives: Diagnostics and Implications from Ghana [pdf], IFPRI Discussion Paper 01129, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute <www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ifpridp01129.pdf> [accessed 4 May 2014].

Griffiths, J. (2012) ‘Leveraging’ Private Sector Finance: How Does it Work and What are the Risks? [pdf], London: Bretton Woods Project <www.brettonwoodsproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/leveraging.pdf> [accessed 2 June 2015].

Hartmann, A. and Linn, J. (2008) Scaling Up: A Framework and Lessons for Development Effectiveness from Literature and Practice [pdf], Wolfensohn Center for Development Working Paper 5, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution <www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2008/10/scaling%20up%20aid%20linn/10_scaling_up_aid_linn.pdf> [accessed 4 May 2014].

Hartmann, A., Kharas, H., Kohl, R., Linn, J., Massler, B. and Sourang, C. (2013) Scaling up Programs for the Rural Poor: IFAD’s Experience, Lessons and Prospects (Phase 2) [pdf], Global Economy & Development Working Paper 54, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution <www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2013/1/ifad%20rural%20poor%20kharas%20linn/ifad%20rural%20poor%20kharas%20linn.pdf> [accessed 4 May 2014].

Hazell, P. and Poulton, C. (2007) ‘Experiences with commercial agriculture’, case study on food staples, All-Africa Review of Competitive Commercial Agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa Study, Rome: FAO; Washington, DC: World Bank.

International Fund for Agricultural Development, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (IFAD/FAO) (2005) ‘A Review of Cassava in Africa with Country Case Studies on Nigeria, Ghana, the United Republic of Tanzania, Uganda and Benin’, in: Proceedings of the Validation Forum on the Global Cassava Development Strategy, Volume 2, Rome: IFAD/FAO <ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/a0154e/A0154E00.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR) (2000) Going to Scale: Can We Bring More Benefits to More People More Quickly? Conference highlights 10–14 April, Philippines: IIRR.

Linn, J.F. (2012) ‘Overview: pathways, drivers and spaces’, in J.F. Linn (ed.), Scaling up in Agriculture, Rural development and Nutrition [pdf], IFPRI 2020 Vision, Washington, DC: IFPRI <http://ebrary.ifpri.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/126977/filename/127188.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

Miller, C. (2011) Agricultural Value Chain Finance Strategy and Design [pdf], Technical Note, Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations <www.ruralfinance.org/fileadmin/templates/rflc/documents/AgVCF_Tech_Note_pdf.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

Nweke, F. (2004) New Challenges in the Cassava Transformation in Nigeria and Ghana, EPTD Discussion Paper 118, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.

Poulton, C. and Macartney, J. (2012) ‘Can public–private partnerships leverage private investment in agricultural value chains in Africa? A preliminary review’, World Development 40(1): 96–109 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.05.017>.

Poulton, C., Dorward, A. and Kydd, J. (2010) ‘The future of small farms: new directions for services, institutions, and intermediation’, World Development 38(10): 1413–28 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.06.009>.

Prowse, M. (2012) Contract Farming in Developing Countries: A Review, A Savoir 12, Paris: Agence Française de Développement (AFD).

Rosenthal, D.M. and Ort, D.R. (2012) ‘Examining cassava’s potential to enhance food security under climate change’, Tropical Plant Biology 5(1): 30–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12042-011-9086-1>.

Seville, D., Buxton, A. and Vorley, B. (2010) Under What Conditions are Value Chains Effective Tools for Pro-Poor Development? Sustainable Food Lab, report prepared for the Ford Foundation, Hartland, VT, London: IIED.

Smith, A.M. (2009) ‘Fair trade, diversification and structural change: towards a broader theoretical framework of analysis’, Oxford Development Studies 37(4): 457–78 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13600810903305208>.

Ton, G. (2010) Resolving the Challenges of Collective Marketing. Incentive Structures that Reduce the Tensions between Members and their Group [pdf], Policy Brief no. 4, Wageningen: LEI Wageningen UR <www.esfim.org/wp-content/uploads/ESFIM-Research-Brief-n04-collective-marketing.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2013) World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision, CD-ROM Edition, New York: UNDESA.

Vorley, B., Cotula, L. and Chan, M.-K. (2012) Tipping the Balance: Policies to Shape Agricultural Investments and Markets in Favour of Small-scale Farmers [online], London: IIED/Oxford: Oxfam <http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/tipping-the-balance-policies-to-shape-agricultural-investments-and-markets-in-f-254551> [accessed 9 May 2015].

Westby, A. (2002) ‘Cassava utilization, storage and small-scale processing’, in R.J. Hillocks and A. Belloti (eds), Cassava Biology, Production and Utilization, Wallingford, UK: CABI.

Wiggins, S. and Keats, S. (2013) Leaping and Learning: Linking Smallholders to Markets in Africa, London: Agriculture for Impact, Imperial College and Overseas Development Institute.

Wiggins, S. and Keats, S. (2014) Smallholder Engagement with the Private Sector [pdf], Economic and Private Sector Professional Evidence and Applied Knowledge Services, London: ODI <www.value-chains.org/dyn/bds/docs/868/TopicGuideonSmallholderEngagementwithprivatesecto.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

African Development Bank (AfDB) (2011) The Middle of the Pyramid: Dynamics of the Middle Class in Africa [pdf], Market Brief, 20 April 2011, Abidjan: AfDB <www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/The%20Middle%20of%20the%20Pyramid_The%20Middle%20of%20the%20Pyramid.pdf> [accessed 4 May 2014].

Angelucci, F., Balié, J., Gourichon, H., Mas Aparisi, A. and Witwer, M. (2013) Monitoring and Analysing Food and Agricultural Policies in Africa: Synthesis Report 2013 [pdf], MAFAP Synthesis Report Series, Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/docrep/019/i3513e/i3513e.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

Barrett, C.B. (2008) ‘Smallholder market participation: concepts and evidence from eastern and southern Africa’, Food Policy 33(4): 299–317 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2007.10.005>.

Campbell, R. (2010) Implementation Best Practices for Value Chain Development Projects, MicroREPORT #167, September 2010, Washington, DC: USAID.

Chandy, L., Ledlie, N. and Penciakova, V. (2013) The Final Countdown: Prospects for Ending Extreme Poverty by 2030 [pdf], Policy Paper 2013-04, Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution <www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/reports/2013/04/ending%20extreme%20poverty%20chandy/the_final_countdown.pdf> [accessed 4 May 2014].

Chang, H.-J. (2009) ‘Rethinking public policy in agriculture: lessons from history, distant and recent’, Journal of Peasant Studies 36:3,477–515 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150903142741>.

Donovan, J., Franzel, S., Cunha, M., Gyau, A. and Mithöfer, D. (2015) ‘Guides for value chain development: a comparative review’, Journal of Agribusiness in Developing and Emerging Economies 5(1): 2–23 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JADEE-07-2013-0025>.

Fermont, A.M., van Asten P.J.A. and Giller, K.E. (2008) ‘Increasing land pressure in East Africa: the changing role of cassava and consequences for sustainability of farming systems’, Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 128: 239–50 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2008.06.009>.

Francesconi, G.N. and Wouterse, F. (2011) The Renewed Case for Farmers’ Cooperatives: Diagnostics and Implications from Ghana [pdf], IFPRI Discussion Paper 01129, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute <www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ifpridp01129.pdf> [accessed 4 May 2014].

Griffiths, J. (2012) ‘Leveraging’ Private Sector Finance: How Does it Work and What are the Risks? [pdf], London: Bretton Woods Project <www.brettonwoodsproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/leveraging.pdf> [accessed 2 June 2015].

Hartmann, A. and Linn, J. (2008) Scaling Up: A Framework and Lessons for Development Effectiveness from Literature and Practice [pdf], Wolfensohn Center for Development Working Paper 5, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution <www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2008/10/scaling%20up%20aid%20linn/10_scaling_up_aid_linn.pdf> [accessed 4 May 2014].

Hartmann, A., Kharas, H., Kohl, R., Linn, J., Massler, B. and Sourang, C. (2013) Scaling up Programs for the Rural Poor: IFAD’s Experience, Lessons and Prospects (Phase 2) [pdf], Global Economy & Development Working Paper 54, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution <www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2013/1/ifad%20rural%20poor%20kharas%20linn/ifad%20rural%20poor%20kharas%20linn.pdf> [accessed 4 May 2014].

Hazell, P. and Poulton, C. (2007) ‘Experiences with commercial agriculture’, case study on food staples, All-Africa Review of Competitive Commercial Agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa Study, Rome: FAO; Washington, DC: World Bank.

International Fund for Agricultural Development, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (IFAD/FAO) (2005) ‘A Review of Cassava in Africa with Country Case Studies on Nigeria, Ghana, the United Republic of Tanzania, Uganda and Benin’, in: Proceedings of the Validation Forum on the Global Cassava Development Strategy, Volume 2, Rome: IFAD/FAO <ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/a0154e/A0154E00.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR) (2000) Going to Scale: Can We Bring More Benefits to More People More Quickly? Conference highlights 10–14 April, Philippines: IIRR.

Linn, J.F. (2012) ‘Overview: pathways, drivers and spaces’, in J.F. Linn (ed.), Scaling up in Agriculture, Rural development and Nutrition [pdf], IFPRI 2020 Vision, Washington, DC: IFPRI <http://ebrary.ifpri.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/126977/filename/127188.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

Miller, C. (2011) Agricultural Value Chain Finance Strategy and Design [pdf], Technical Note, Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations <www.ruralfinance.org/fileadmin/templates/rflc/documents/AgVCF_Tech_Note_pdf.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

Nweke, F. (2004) New Challenges in the Cassava Transformation in Nigeria and Ghana, EPTD Discussion Paper 118, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.

Poulton, C. and Macartney, J. (2012) ‘Can public–private partnerships leverage private investment in agricultural value chains in Africa? A preliminary review’, World Development 40(1): 96–109 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.05.017>.

Poulton, C., Dorward, A. and Kydd, J. (2010) ‘The future of small farms: new directions for services, institutions, and intermediation’, World Development 38(10): 1413–28 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.06.009>.

Prowse, M. (2012) Contract Farming in Developing Countries: A Review, A Savoir 12, Paris: Agence Française de Développement (AFD).

Rosenthal, D.M. and Ort, D.R. (2012) ‘Examining cassava’s potential to enhance food security under climate change’, Tropical Plant Biology 5(1): 30–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12042-011-9086-1>.

Seville, D., Buxton, A. and Vorley, B. (2010) Under What Conditions are Value Chains Effective Tools for Pro-Poor Development? Sustainable Food Lab, report prepared for the Ford Foundation, Hartland, VT, London: IIED.

Smith, A.M. (2009) ‘Fair trade, diversification and structural change: towards a broader theoretical framework of analysis’, Oxford Development Studies 37(4): 457–78 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13600810903305208>.

Ton, G. (2010) Resolving the Challenges of Collective Marketing. Incentive Structures that Reduce the Tensions between Members and their Group [pdf], Policy Brief no. 4, Wageningen: LEI Wageningen UR <www.esfim.org/wp-content/uploads/ESFIM-Research-Brief-n04-collective-marketing.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2013) World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision, CD-ROM Edition, New York: UNDESA.

Vorley, B., Cotula, L. and Chan, M.-K. (2012) Tipping the Balance: Policies to Shape Agricultural Investments and Markets in Favour of Small-scale Farmers [online], London: IIED/Oxford: Oxfam <http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/tipping-the-balance-policies-to-shape-agricultural-investments-and-markets-in-f-254551> [accessed 9 May 2015].

Westby, A. (2002) ‘Cassava utilization, storage and small-scale processing’, in R.J. Hillocks and A. Belloti (eds), Cassava Biology, Production and Utilization, Wallingford, UK: CABI.

Wiggins, S. and Keats, S. (2013) Leaping and Learning: Linking Smallholders to Markets in Africa, London: Agriculture for Impact, Imperial College and Overseas Development Institute.

Wiggins, S. and Keats, S. (2014) Smallholder Engagement with the Private Sector [pdf], Economic and Private Sector Professional Evidence and Applied Knowledge Services, London: ODI <www.value-chains.org/dyn/bds/docs/868/TopicGuideonSmallholderEngagementwithprivatesecto.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

African Development Bank (AfDB) (2011) The Middle of the Pyramid: Dynamics of the Middle Class in Africa [pdf], Market Brief, 20 April 2011, Abidjan: AfDB <www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/The%20Middle%20of%20the%20Pyramid_The%20Middle%20of%20the%20Pyramid.pdf> [accessed 4 May 2014].

Angelucci, F., Balié, J., Gourichon, H., Mas Aparisi, A. and Witwer, M. (2013) Monitoring and Analysing Food and Agricultural Policies in Africa: Synthesis Report 2013 [pdf], MAFAP Synthesis Report Series, Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/docrep/019/i3513e/i3513e.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

Barrett, C.B. (2008) ‘Smallholder market participation: concepts and evidence from eastern and southern Africa’, Food Policy 33(4): 299–317 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2007.10.005>.

Campbell, R. (2010) Implementation Best Practices for Value Chain Development Projects, MicroREPORT #167, September 2010, Washington, DC: USAID.

Chandy, L., Ledlie, N. and Penciakova, V. (2013) The Final Countdown: Prospects for Ending Extreme Poverty by 2030 [pdf], Policy Paper 2013-04, Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution <www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/reports/2013/04/ending%20extreme%20poverty%20chandy/the_final_countdown.pdf> [accessed 4 May 2014].

Chang, H.-J. (2009) ‘Rethinking public policy in agriculture: lessons from history, distant and recent’, Journal of Peasant Studies 36:3,477–515 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150903142741>.

Donovan, J., Franzel, S., Cunha, M., Gyau, A. and Mithöfer, D. (2015) ‘Guides for value chain development: a comparative review’, Journal of Agribusiness in Developing and Emerging Economies 5(1): 2–23 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JADEE-07-2013-0025>.

Fermont, A.M., van Asten P.J.A. and Giller, K.E. (2008) ‘Increasing land pressure in East Africa: the changing role of cassava and consequences for sustainability of farming systems’, Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 128: 239–50 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2008.06.009>.

Francesconi, G.N. and Wouterse, F. (2011) The Renewed Case for Farmers’ Cooperatives: Diagnostics and Implications from Ghana [pdf], IFPRI Discussion Paper 01129, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute <www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ifpridp01129.pdf> [accessed 4 May 2014].

Griffiths, J. (2012) ‘Leveraging’ Private Sector Finance: How Does it Work and What are the Risks? [pdf], London: Bretton Woods Project <www.brettonwoodsproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/leveraging.pdf> [accessed 2 June 2015].

Hartmann, A. and Linn, J. (2008) Scaling Up: A Framework and Lessons for Development Effectiveness from Literature and Practice [pdf], Wolfensohn Center for Development Working Paper 5, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution <www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2008/10/scaling%20up%20aid%20linn/10_scaling_up_aid_linn.pdf> [accessed 4 May 2014].

Hartmann, A., Kharas, H., Kohl, R., Linn, J., Massler, B. and Sourang, C. (2013) Scaling up Programs for the Rural Poor: IFAD’s Experience, Lessons and Prospects (Phase 2) [pdf], Global Economy & Development Working Paper 54, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution <www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2013/1/ifad%20rural%20poor%20kharas%20linn/ifad%20rural%20poor%20kharas%20linn.pdf> [accessed 4 May 2014].

Hazell, P. and Poulton, C. (2007) ‘Experiences with commercial agriculture’, case study on food staples, All-Africa Review of Competitive Commercial Agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa Study, Rome: FAO; Washington, DC: World Bank.

International Fund for Agricultural Development, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (IFAD/FAO) (2005) ‘A Review of Cassava in Africa with Country Case Studies on Nigeria, Ghana, the United Republic of Tanzania, Uganda and Benin’, in: Proceedings of the Validation Forum on the Global Cassava Development Strategy, Volume 2, Rome: IFAD/FAO <ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/a0154e/A0154E00.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR) (2000) Going to Scale: Can We Bring More Benefits to More People More Quickly? Conference highlights 10–14 April, Philippines: IIRR.

Linn, J.F. (2012) ‘Overview: pathways, drivers and spaces’, in J.F. Linn (ed.), Scaling up in Agriculture, Rural development and Nutrition [pdf], IFPRI 2020 Vision, Washington, DC: IFPRI <http://ebrary.ifpri.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/126977/filename/127188.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

Miller, C. (2011) Agricultural Value Chain Finance Strategy and Design [pdf], Technical Note, Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations <www.ruralfinance.org/fileadmin/templates/rflc/documents/AgVCF_Tech_Note_pdf.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

Nweke, F. (2004) New Challenges in the Cassava Transformation in Nigeria and Ghana, EPTD Discussion Paper 118, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.

Poulton, C. and Macartney, J. (2012) ‘Can public–private partnerships leverage private investment in agricultural value chains in Africa? A preliminary review’, World Development 40(1): 96–109 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.05.017>.

Poulton, C., Dorward, A. and Kydd, J. (2010) ‘The future of small farms: new directions for services, institutions, and intermediation’, World Development 38(10): 1413–28 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.06.009>.

Prowse, M. (2012) Contract Farming in Developing Countries: A Review, A Savoir 12, Paris: Agence Française de Développement (AFD).

Rosenthal, D.M. and Ort, D.R. (2012) ‘Examining cassava’s potential to enhance food security under climate change’, Tropical Plant Biology 5(1): 30–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12042-011-9086-1>.

Seville, D., Buxton, A. and Vorley, B. (2010) Under What Conditions are Value Chains Effective Tools for Pro-Poor Development? Sustainable Food Lab, report prepared for the Ford Foundation, Hartland, VT, London: IIED.

Smith, A.M. (2009) ‘Fair trade, diversification and structural change: towards a broader theoretical framework of analysis’, Oxford Development Studies 37(4): 457–78 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13600810903305208>.

Ton, G. (2010) Resolving the Challenges of Collective Marketing. Incentive Structures that Reduce the Tensions between Members and their Group [pdf], Policy Brief no. 4, Wageningen: LEI Wageningen UR <www.esfim.org/wp-content/uploads/ESFIM-Research-Brief-n04-collective-marketing.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2013) World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision, CD-ROM Edition, New York: UNDESA.

Vorley, B., Cotula, L. and Chan, M.-K. (2012) Tipping the Balance: Policies to Shape Agricultural Investments and Markets in Favour of Small-scale Farmers [online], London: IIED/Oxford: Oxfam <http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/tipping-the-balance-policies-to-shape-agricultural-investments-and-markets-in-f-254551> [accessed 9 May 2015].

Westby, A. (2002) ‘Cassava utilization, storage and small-scale processing’, in R.J. Hillocks and A. Belloti (eds), Cassava Biology, Production and Utilization, Wallingford, UK: CABI.

Wiggins, S. and Keats, S. (2013) Leaping and Learning: Linking Smallholders to Markets in Africa, London: Agriculture for Impact, Imperial College and Overseas Development Institute.

Wiggins, S. and Keats, S. (2014) Smallholder Engagement with the Private Sector [pdf], Economic and Private Sector Professional Evidence and Applied Knowledge Services, London: ODI <www.value-chains.org/dyn/bds/docs/868/TopicGuideonSmallholderEngagementwithprivatesecto.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

African Development Bank (AfDB) (2011) The Middle of the Pyramid: Dynamics of the Middle Class in Africa [pdf], Market Brief, 20 April 2011, Abidjan: AfDB <www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Publications/The%20Middle%20of%20the%20Pyramid_The%20Middle%20of%20the%20Pyramid.pdf> [accessed 4 May 2014].

Angelucci, F., Balié, J., Gourichon, H., Mas Aparisi, A. and Witwer, M. (2013) Monitoring and Analysing Food and Agricultural Policies in Africa: Synthesis Report 2013 [pdf], MAFAP Synthesis Report Series, Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/docrep/019/i3513e/i3513e.pdf> [accessed 9 May 2015].

Barrett, C.B. (2008) ‘Smallholder market participation: concepts and evidence from eastern and southern Africa’, Food Policy 33(4): 299–317 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2007.10.005>.

Campbell, R. (2010) Implementation Best Practices for Value Chain Development Projects, MicroREPORT #167, September 2010, Washington, DC: USAID.

Chandy, L., Ledlie, N. and Penciakova, V. (2013) The Final Countdown: Prospects for Ending Extreme Poverty by 2030 [pdf], Policy Paper 2013-04, Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution <www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/reports/2013/04/ending%20extreme%20poverty%20chandy/the_final_countdown.pdf> [accessed 4 May 2014].

Chang, H.-J. (2009) ‘Rethinking public policy in agriculture: lessons from history, distant and recent’, Journal of Peasant Studies 36:3,477–515 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150903142741>.

Donovan, J., Franzel, S., Cunha, M., Gyau, A. and Mithöfer, D. (2015) ‘Guides for value chain development: a comparative review’, Journal of Agribusiness in Developing and Emerging Economies 5(1): 2–23 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JADEE-07-2013-0025>.

Fermont, A.M., van Asten P.J.A. and Giller, K.E. (2008) ‘Increasing land pressure in East Africa: the changing role of cassava and consequences for sustainability of farming systems’, Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 128: 239–50 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2008.06.009>.

Francesconi, G.N. and Wouterse, F. (2011) The Renewed Case for Farmers’ Cooperatives: Diagnostics and Implications from Ghana [pdf], IFPRI Discussion Paper 01129, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute <www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ifpridp01129.pdf> [accessed 4 May 2014].

Griffiths, J. (2012) ‘Leveraging’ Private Sector Finance: How Does it Work and What are the Risks? [pdf], London: Bretton Woods Project <www.brettonwoodsproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/leveraging.pdf> [accessed 2 June 2015].

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