Cassava market development: a path to women’s empowerment or business as usual?
Throughout sub-Saharan Africa there are a number of initiatives aiming to improve the effectiveness of staple crop value chains as part of a broader discourse around markets and poverty reduction. Staple crops, such as cassava, are often considered as an entry point for targeting market interventions to the rural poor, particularly women. However, initial findings from fieldwork in Nigeria and Malawi show a much more complex picture of the role of cassava and cassava markets in men and women’s livelihoods, which varies by location, ethnicity, and life-stage of individuals. The concept of women’s empowerment, as defined by access to resources, agency, and achievements, is used in this analysis to understand these dynamics. The analysis reveals gender inequalities that can limit the ability of women to benefit from growing market opportunities. Simply targeting value chains that involve the participation of women may not benefit women de facto over time. These initial findings stress the importance of questioning our assumptions in development discourse on markets, gender (in)equality, and poverty alleviation.Adebayo, K., Abayomi, L., Abass, A., Dziedzoave, N.T., Forsythe, L., Hillocks, R.J., Gensi, R., Gibson, R.W., Graffham, A.J., Ilona, P., Kleih, U.K., Lamboll, R.I., Mahende, G., Martin, A.M., Onumah, G.E., Orr, A.W., Posthumus, H., Sanni, L.O., Sandifolo, V. and Westby, A. (2010) ‘Sustainable inclusion of smallholders in the emerging high quality cassava flour value chains in Africa: challenges for agricultural extension services’, Journal of Agricultural Extension 14(1): 1–10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jae.v14i1.64062>.
Afolami, C.A. and Ajani, O.I. (1995) ‘Gender participation, group formation and adoption of cassava processing technologies in Ogun State’, in Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Conference of the Nigerian Rural Sociological Association (NRSA), Ogun State, Ago Iwoye, 13–17 March 1994, pp. 88–96.
Boserup, E. (1970) Women’s Role in Economic Development, New York: St Martin’s Press.
Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), African Union Commission and Nepad (2015) CAADP Programme of Work 2015–2025: Operationalising the Malabo Declaration on African Agriculture and CAADP Implementation Strategy and Roadmap [pdf], Johannesburg, South Africa: NEPAD Planning and Coordinating Agency <http://caadp.net/sites/default/files/the_caadp_programme_of_work_english_1.pdf> [accessed 4 June 2015].
Carney, D. (ed.) (1998) Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: What Contributions Can We Make? London: DFID.
Chambers, R. and Conway, G.R. (1992) Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts for the 21st Century, IDS Discussion Paper 296, Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies.
Department for International Development (DFID) and Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) (2008) A Synthesis of the Making Markets Work for the Poor (M4P) Approach [pdf], Bern, Switzerland: SDC <www.value-chains.org/dyn/bds/docs/681/Synthesis_2008.pdf> [accessed 3 March 2015].
Enete, A., Nweke, F. and Tollens, E. (2002) ‘Contributions of men and women to food crop production labour in Africa: information from COSCA’, Outlook on Agriculture 31(4): 259–65 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5367/000000002101294155>.
FAO (2012) The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2012, Rome: FAO, IFAD and WFP.
IFAD and FAO (2000) The World Cassava Economy [online], Rome: FAO and IFAD URL: <www.fao.org/docrep/009/x4007e/x4007e00.htm> [accessed 2 April 2015].
Kabeer, N. (1999) ‘Resources, agency, achievements: reflections on the measurement of women’s empowerment’, Development and Change 30(3): 435–64 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00125>.
Kabeer, N. (2005) ‘Gender equality and women’s empowerment: a critical analysis of the third millennium development goal’, Gender and Development 13(1): 13–24.
Kabeer, N. (2010) Can the MDGs Provide a Pathway to Social Justice? The Challenge of Intersecting Inequalities, New York: United Nations Development Programme.
Kaitano, V. and Martin, A.M. (2009) Gender and Diversity Issues Relating to Cassava Production and Processing in Malawi [pdf], C:AVA project document <http://cava.nri.org/images/publications/Malawi_GDSituationalAnalysis.pdf> [accessed 3 April 2015].
NEPAD (2004) ‘NEPAD targets cassava as Africa’s top fighter against poverty’, NEPAD Dialogue: Focus on Africa 36, 27 February 2004.
Nweke, F.I. (1994) Processing Potential for Cassava Production Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, Ibadan, Nigeria: IITA.
Pauw, K., Thurlow, J. and van Seventer, D. (2010) Droughts and Floods in Malawi: Assessing the Economywide Effects [pdf], IFPRI Discussion Paper 00962, Washington, DC: IFPRI <www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ifpridp00962.pdf> [accessed 2 April 2015].
Phipps, E. (2014) ‘Tribute to cassava: princess, pauper, mother, orphan, queen: Things fall apart … and come together’ [GCP blog], Generation Challenge Programme <http://blog.generationcp.org/2014/10/14/tribute-to-cassava-princess-pauper-mother-queen/> [accessed 2 April 2015].
Renewable Natural Resources and Agriculture Team (RNRAT), DFID Policy Division (2004) Making Agricultural Markets Work for the Poor, Working Paper, London: DFID.
Scoones, I. (1998) Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: A Framework for Analysis, IDS Working Paper 72, Brighton, UK: IDS.
Van Vark, C. (2013) ‘Cassava can become Africa’s new cash crop’, Global development professionals network, The Guardian [website], 28 March 2013 <www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2013/mar/28/cassava-food-security-sub-saharan-africa> [accessed 2 April 2015].
World Bank (2008) World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development, Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank, FAO, and IFAD (2009) Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook, Washington, DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank.
Adebayo, K., Abayomi, L., Abass, A., Dziedzoave, N.T., Forsythe, L., Hillocks, R.J., Gensi, R., Gibson, R.W., Graffham, A.J., Ilona, P., Kleih, U.K., Lamboll, R.I., Mahende, G., Martin, A.M., Onumah, G.E., Orr, A.W., Posthumus, H., Sanni, L.O., Sandifolo, V. and Westby, A. (2010) ‘Sustainable inclusion of smallholders in the emerging high quality cassava flour value chains in Africa: challenges for agricultural extension services’, Journal of Agricultural Extension 14(1): 1–10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jae.v14i1.64062>.
Afolami, C.A. and Ajani, O.I. (1995) ‘Gender participation, group formation and adoption of cassava processing technologies in Ogun State’, in Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Conference of the Nigerian Rural Sociological Association (NRSA), Ogun State, Ago Iwoye, 13–17 March 1994, pp. 88–96.
Boserup, E. (1970) Women’s Role in Economic Development, New York: St Martin’s Press.
Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), African Union Commission and Nepad (2015) CAADP Programme of Work 2015–2025: Operationalising the Malabo Declaration on African Agriculture and CAADP Implementation Strategy and Roadmap [pdf], Johannesburg, South Africa: NEPAD Planning and Coordinating Agency <http://caadp.net/sites/default/files/the_caadp_programme_of_work_english_1.pdf> [accessed 4 June 2015].
Carney, D. (ed.) (1998) Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: What Contributions Can We Make? London: DFID.
Chambers, R. and Conway, G.R. (1992) Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts for the 21st Century, IDS Discussion Paper 296, Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies.
Department for International Development (DFID) and Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) (2008) A Synthesis of the Making Markets Work for the Poor (M4P) Approach [pdf], Bern, Switzerland: SDC <www.value-chains.org/dyn/bds/docs/681/Synthesis_2008.pdf> [accessed 3 March 2015].
Enete, A., Nweke, F. and Tollens, E. (2002) ‘Contributions of men and women to food crop production labour in Africa: information from COSCA’, Outlook on Agriculture 31(4): 259–65 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5367/000000002101294155>.
FAO (2012) The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2012, Rome: FAO, IFAD and WFP.
IFAD and FAO (2000) The World Cassava Economy [online], Rome: FAO and IFAD URL: <www.fao.org/docrep/009/x4007e/x4007e00.htm> [accessed 2 April 2015].
Kabeer, N. (1999) ‘Resources, agency, achievements: reflections on the measurement of women’s empowerment’, Development and Change 30(3): 435–64 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00125>.
Kabeer, N. (2005) ‘Gender equality and women’s empowerment: a critical analysis of the third millennium development goal’, Gender and Development 13(1): 13–24.
Kabeer, N. (2010) Can the MDGs Provide a Pathway to Social Justice? The Challenge of Intersecting Inequalities, New York: United Nations Development Programme.
Kaitano, V. and Martin, A.M. (2009) Gender and Diversity Issues Relating to Cassava Production and Processing in Malawi [pdf], C:AVA project document <http://cava.nri.org/images/publications/Malawi_GDSituationalAnalysis.pdf> [accessed 3 April 2015].
NEPAD (2004) ‘NEPAD targets cassava as Africa’s top fighter against poverty’, NEPAD Dialogue: Focus on Africa 36, 27 February 2004.
Nweke, F.I. (1994) Processing Potential for Cassava Production Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, Ibadan, Nigeria: IITA.
Pauw, K., Thurlow, J. and van Seventer, D. (2010) Droughts and Floods in Malawi: Assessing the Economywide Effects [pdf], IFPRI Discussion Paper 00962, Washington, DC: IFPRI <www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ifpridp00962.pdf> [accessed 2 April 2015].
Phipps, E. (2014) ‘Tribute to cassava: princess, pauper, mother, orphan, queen: Things fall apart … and come together’ [GCP blog], Generation Challenge Programme <http://blog.generationcp.org/2014/10/14/tribute-to-cassava-princess-pauper-mother-queen/> [accessed 2 April 2015].
Renewable Natural Resources and Agriculture Team (RNRAT), DFID Policy Division (2004) Making Agricultural Markets Work for the Poor, Working Paper, London: DFID.
Scoones, I. (1998) Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: A Framework for Analysis, IDS Working Paper 72, Brighton, UK: IDS.
Van Vark, C. (2013) ‘Cassava can become Africa’s new cash crop’, Global development professionals network, The Guardian [website], 28 March 2013 <www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2013/mar/28/cassava-food-security-sub-saharan-africa> [accessed 2 April 2015].
World Bank (2008) World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development, Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank, FAO, and IFAD (2009) Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook, Washington, DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank.
Adebayo, K., Abayomi, L., Abass, A., Dziedzoave, N.T., Forsythe, L., Hillocks, R.J., Gensi, R., Gibson, R.W., Graffham, A.J., Ilona, P., Kleih, U.K., Lamboll, R.I., Mahende, G., Martin, A.M., Onumah, G.E., Orr, A.W., Posthumus, H., Sanni, L.O., Sandifolo, V. and Westby, A. (2010) ‘Sustainable inclusion of smallholders in the emerging high quality cassava flour value chains in Africa: challenges for agricultural extension services’, Journal of Agricultural Extension 14(1): 1–10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jae.v14i1.64062>.
Afolami, C.A. and Ajani, O.I. (1995) ‘Gender participation, group formation and adoption of cassava processing technologies in Ogun State’, in Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Conference of the Nigerian Rural Sociological Association (NRSA), Ogun State, Ago Iwoye, 13–17 March 1994, pp. 88–96.
Boserup, E. (1970) Women’s Role in Economic Development, New York: St Martin’s Press.
Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), African Union Commission and Nepad (2015) CAADP Programme of Work 2015–2025: Operationalising the Malabo Declaration on African Agriculture and CAADP Implementation Strategy and Roadmap [pdf], Johannesburg, South Africa: NEPAD Planning and Coordinating Agency <http://caadp.net/sites/default/files/the_caadp_programme_of_work_english_1.pdf> [accessed 4 June 2015].
Carney, D. (ed.) (1998) Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: What Contributions Can We Make? London: DFID.
Chambers, R. and Conway, G.R. (1992) Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts for the 21st Century, IDS Discussion Paper 296, Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies.
Department for International Development (DFID) and Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) (2008) A Synthesis of the Making Markets Work for the Poor (M4P) Approach [pdf], Bern, Switzerland: SDC <www.value-chains.org/dyn/bds/docs/681/Synthesis_2008.pdf> [accessed 3 March 2015].
Enete, A., Nweke, F. and Tollens, E. (2002) ‘Contributions of men and women to food crop production labour in Africa: information from COSCA’, Outlook on Agriculture 31(4): 259–65 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5367/000000002101294155>.
FAO (2012) The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2012, Rome: FAO, IFAD and WFP.
IFAD and FAO (2000) The World Cassava Economy [online], Rome: FAO and IFAD URL: <www.fao.org/docrep/009/x4007e/x4007e00.htm> [accessed 2 April 2015].
Kabeer, N. (1999) ‘Resources, agency, achievements: reflections on the measurement of women’s empowerment’, Development and Change 30(3): 435–64 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00125>.
Kabeer, N. (2005) ‘Gender equality and women’s empowerment: a critical analysis of the third millennium development goal’, Gender and Development 13(1): 13–24.
Kabeer, N. (2010) Can the MDGs Provide a Pathway to Social Justice? The Challenge of Intersecting Inequalities, New York: United Nations Development Programme.
Kaitano, V. and Martin, A.M. (2009) Gender and Diversity Issues Relating to Cassava Production and Processing in Malawi [pdf], C:AVA project document <http://cava.nri.org/images/publications/Malawi_GDSituationalAnalysis.pdf> [accessed 3 April 2015].
NEPAD (2004) ‘NEPAD targets cassava as Africa’s top fighter against poverty’, NEPAD Dialogue: Focus on Africa 36, 27 February 2004.
Nweke, F.I. (1994) Processing Potential for Cassava Production Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, Ibadan, Nigeria: IITA.
Pauw, K., Thurlow, J. and van Seventer, D. (2010) Droughts and Floods in Malawi: Assessing the Economywide Effects [pdf], IFPRI Discussion Paper 00962, Washington, DC: IFPRI <www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ifpridp00962.pdf> [accessed 2 April 2015].
Phipps, E. (2014) ‘Tribute to cassava: princess, pauper, mother, orphan, queen: Things fall apart … and come together’ [GCP blog], Generation Challenge Programme <http://blog.generationcp.org/2014/10/14/tribute-to-cassava-princess-pauper-mother-queen/> [accessed 2 April 2015].
Renewable Natural Resources and Agriculture Team (RNRAT), DFID Policy Division (2004) Making Agricultural Markets Work for the Poor, Working Paper, London: DFID.
Scoones, I. (1998) Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: A Framework for Analysis, IDS Working Paper 72, Brighton, UK: IDS.
Van Vark, C. (2013) ‘Cassava can become Africa’s new cash crop’, Global development professionals network, The Guardian [website], 28 March 2013 <www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2013/mar/28/cassava-food-security-sub-saharan-africa> [accessed 2 April 2015].
World Bank (2008) World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development, Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank, FAO, and IFAD (2009) Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook, Washington, DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank.
Adebayo, K., Abayomi, L., Abass, A., Dziedzoave, N.T., Forsythe, L., Hillocks, R.J., Gensi, R., Gibson, R.W., Graffham, A.J., Ilona, P., Kleih, U.K., Lamboll, R.I., Mahende, G., Martin, A.M., Onumah, G.E., Orr, A.W., Posthumus, H., Sanni, L.O., Sandifolo, V. and Westby, A. (2010) ‘Sustainable inclusion of smallholders in the emerging high quality cassava flour value chains in Africa: challenges for agricultural extension services’, Journal of Agricultural Extension 14(1): 1–10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jae.v14i1.64062>.
Afolami, C.A. and Ajani, O.I. (1995) ‘Gender participation, group formation and adoption of cassava processing technologies in Ogun State’, in Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Conference of the Nigerian Rural Sociological Association (NRSA), Ogun State, Ago Iwoye, 13–17 March 1994, pp. 88–96.
Boserup, E. (1970) Women’s Role in Economic Development, New York: St Martin’s Press.
Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), African Union Commission and Nepad (2015) CAADP Programme of Work 2015–2025: Operationalising the Malabo Declaration on African Agriculture and CAADP Implementation Strategy and Roadmap [pdf], Johannesburg, South Africa: NEPAD Planning and Coordinating Agency <http://caadp.net/sites/default/files/the_caadp_programme_of_work_english_1.pdf> [accessed 4 June 2015].
Carney, D. (ed.) (1998) Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: What Contributions Can We Make? London: DFID.
Chambers, R. and Conway, G.R. (1992) Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts for the 21st Century, IDS Discussion Paper 296, Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies.
Department for International Development (DFID) and Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) (2008) A Synthesis of the Making Markets Work for the Poor (M4P) Approach [pdf], Bern, Switzerland: SDC <www.value-chains.org/dyn/bds/docs/681/Synthesis_2008.pdf> [accessed 3 March 2015].
Enete, A., Nweke, F. and Tollens, E. (2002) ‘Contributions of men and women to food crop production labour in Africa: information from COSCA’, Outlook on Agriculture 31(4): 259–65 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5367/000000002101294155>.
FAO (2012) The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2012, Rome: FAO, IFAD and WFP.
IFAD and FAO (2000) The World Cassava Economy [online], Rome: FAO and IFAD URL: <www.fao.org/docrep/009/x4007e/x4007e00.htm> [accessed 2 April 2015].
Kabeer, N. (1999) ‘Resources, agency, achievements: reflections on the measurement of women’s empowerment’, Development and Change 30(3): 435–64 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00125>.
Kabeer, N. (2005) ‘Gender equality and women’s empowerment: a critical analysis of the third millennium development goal’, Gender and Development 13(1): 13–24.
Kabeer, N. (2010) Can the MDGs Provide a Pathway to Social Justice? The Challenge of Intersecting Inequalities, New York: United Nations Development Programme.
Kaitano, V. and Martin, A.M. (2009) Gender and Diversity Issues Relating to Cassava Production and Processing in Malawi [pdf], C:AVA project document <http://cava.nri.org/images/publications/Malawi_GDSituationalAnalysis.pdf> [accessed 3 April 2015].
NEPAD (2004) ‘NEPAD targets cassava as Africa’s top fighter against poverty’, NEPAD Dialogue: Focus on Africa 36, 27 February 2004.
Nweke, F.I. (1994) Processing Potential for Cassava Production Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, Ibadan, Nigeria: IITA.
Pauw, K., Thurlow, J. and van Seventer, D. (2010) Droughts and Floods in Malawi: Assessing the Economywide Effects [pdf], IFPRI Discussion Paper 00962, Washington, DC: IFPRI <www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ifpridp00962.pdf> [accessed 2 April 2015].
Phipps, E. (2014) ‘Tribute to cassava: princess, pauper, mother, orphan, queen: Things fall apart … and come together’ [GCP blog], Generation Challenge Programme <http://blog.generationcp.org/2014/10/14/tribute-to-cassava-princess-pauper-mother-queen/> [accessed 2 April 2015].
Renewable Natural Resources and Agriculture Team (RNRAT), DFID Policy Division (2004) Making Agricultural Markets Work for the Poor, Working Paper, London: DFID.
Scoones, I. (1998) Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: A Framework for Analysis, IDS Working Paper 72, Brighton, UK: IDS.
Van Vark, C. (2013) ‘Cassava can become Africa’s new cash crop’, Global development professionals network, The Guardian [website], 28 March 2013 <www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2013/mar/28/cassava-food-security-sub-saharan-africa> [accessed 2 April 2015].
World Bank (2008) World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development, Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank, FAO, and IFAD (2009) Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook, Washington, DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank.
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