The integration of the human rights framework in water policy and management is slowly gaining strength. What is too often overlooked, though, is the ‘other’ side of the water cycle: wastewater governance. What do human rights have to do with sewage, sludge, and septage? What are the links between human rights and water contamination? The article starts by explaining the concept of wastewater, outlining the impact of water pollution on the realization of human rights, exploring the interface between access to sanitation and wastewater governance, and presenting the relevant human rights framework. It goes on to describe how households, agriculture, and industry contribute to water pollution. Its main contribution lies in demonstrating the value of integrating human rights into wastewater governance and water pollution control to address challenges in the legislative and regulatory frameworks, institutional settings, appropriate technology choices, financing and pricing, and strengthening accountability and transparency.

Bain, R., Cronk, R., Hossain, R., Bonjour, S., Onda, K., Wright, .J, Yang, H., Slaymaker, T., Hunter, P., Prüss-Ustün, A. and Bartram, J. (2014), ‘Global assessment of exposure to faecal contamination through drinking water based on a systematic review’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 19(8), 917–927, <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12334>

Balazs, C., Morello-Frosch, R., Hubbard, A. and Ray, I. (2011) ‘Social disparities in nitratecontaminated drinking water in California's San Joaquin Valley’, Environmental Health Perspectives 119(9): 1272–8.

Biswas, A.K. and Tortajada, C. (2011) ‘Water quality management: an introductory framework’, International Journal of Water Resources Development 27(1): 5–11 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2010.547979>.

Black, M. and Fawcett, B. (2008) The Last Taboo: Opening the Door on the Global Sanitation Crisis, London: Earthscan.

Blundo, G. and Le Meur, P.-Y. (2009) ‘Introduction: an anthropology of everyday governance: collective service delivery and subject-making’, in G. Blundo and P-Y. Le Meur (eds), The Governance of Daily Life in Africa: Ethnographic Explorations of Public and Collective Services, pp. 1–38, Leiden: Koniklijke Brill NV.

Cleaver, F. (2002) ‘Reinventing institutions: bricolage and the social embeddedness of natural resource management’, The European Journal of Development Research 14(2): 11–30 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/714000425>.

Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) (2011) ‘Statement on the right to sanitation’ [online], E/C.12/2010.1 <http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G11/420/47/pdf/G1142047.pdf?OpenElement>. http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G11/420/47/pdf/G1142047.pdf?OpenElement

Corcoran, E., Nellemann, C., Baker, E., Bos, R., Osborn, D. and Savelli, H. (2010) Sick Water? The Central Role of Wastewater Management in Sustainable Development, Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP and UN-Habitat.

Eide, A. (2001) ‘Economic, social and cultural rights as human rights’, in A. Eide, C. Krause and A. Rosas (eds.), Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, A Textbook, 2nd edition, Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, pp. 9–28.

Etzold, B., Jülich, S., Keck, M., Sakdapolrak, P., Schmitt, T. and Zimmer, A. (2012) ‘Doing institutions: a dialectic reading of institutions and social practices and its relevance for development geography’, Erdkunde 66(3): 185–95 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3112/erdkunde.2012.03.01>.

Graham, S., Desai, R. and McFarlane, C. (2013) ‘Water wars in Mumbai’, Public Culture 25(1): 115–41 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/08992363-1890486>.

Harmony Gold Mining Company Ltd v. Regional Director: Free State Department of Water Affairs and Others (2012) 68161/2008 ZAGPPHC 127.

Harter, T. and Lund, J.R. (2012) Addressing Nitrate in California's Drinking Water, Davis: University of California.

Human Rights Council (HRC) (2010) ‘Human rights and access to safe drinking water and sanitation’ [online], A/HRC/RES/15/9 <http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G10/166/33/pdf/G1016633.pdf?OpenElement>. http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G10/166/33/pdf/G1016633.pdf?OpenElement

Independent Expert on the Issue of Human Rights Obligations Related to Access to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation, Catarina de Albuquerque (IE WatSan) (2009) ‘Human rights obligations related to access to sanitation’, A/HRC/12/24 http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G09/144/37/pdf/G0914437.pdf?OpenElement>. http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G09/144/37/pdf/G0914437.pdf?OpenElement

Independent Expert on the Issue of Human Rights Obligations Related to Access to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation, Catarina de Albuquerque (IE WatSan) (2010a) ‘The Millennium Development Goals’ [online], A/HRC/65/254 <http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N10/477/84/pdf/N1047784.pdf?OpenElement>. http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N10/477/84/pdf/N1047784.pdf?OpenElement

Independent Expert on Extreme Poverty, Magdalena Sepulveda Carmona and Independent Expert On Water and Sanitation, Catarina de Albuquerque (IE WatSan) (2010b) ‘Mission to Bangladesh’ [online], A/HRC/15/55 <http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G10/154/51/pdf/G1015451.pdf?OpenElement> [accessed 24 September 2014]. http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G10/154/51/pdf/G1015451.pdf?OpenElement

Jenkins, M.W., Cumming, O., Scott,B. and Cairncross, S. (2014) ‘Beyond “improved” towards ‘safe and sustainable’ urban sanitation: assessing the design, management and functionality of sanitation in poor communities of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania”, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 4(1), 131–141, <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2013.180>.

Jiménez, B., et al. (2010), ‘Wastewater, sludge and excreta use in developing countries’ in P. Drechsel et al. (eds.), Wastewater Irrigation and Health, IDRC, pp. 3–28.

Johnstone, D. (2013) ‘Background discussion paper on wastewater and water quality targets and indicators’, Geneva: UN-Water (unpublished).

Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) (2014) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2014 Update [pdf] <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP_report_2014_webEng.pdf> [accessed 16 September 2014]. www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP_report_2014_webEng.pdf

Langford, M. and Winkler, I. (2014) ‘Muddying the Water? Assessing target-based approaches in development cooperation for water and sanitation’, Journal for Human Development and Capabilities 15(2-3): 247–60 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19452829.2014.896321>.

Lawhon, M., Ernstson, H. and Silver, J. (2014) ‘Provincializing urban political ecology: towards a situated UPE through African urbanism’, Antipode 46(2): 496–516 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/anti.12051>.

Lipsky, M. (2010) Street-level Bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Services, New York: Russell Sage Foundation Publications.

Miraftab, F. (2004) ‘Invited and invented spaces of participation: neoliberal citizenship and feminists’ expanded notion of politics’, Wagadu 1: 1–7.

Molle, F., Mollinga, P. and Wester, P. (2009) ‘Hydraulic bureaucracies and the hydraulic mission: flows of water, flows of power’, Water Alternatives 2(3): 328–49.

Momodu, M.A. and Anyakora, C.A. (2010) ‘Heavy metal contamination of ground water: the Surulere case study’, Research Journal Environmental and Earth Sciences 2(1): 39–43.

Naik, K.S. and Stenstrom, M.K. (2012) ‘Evidence of the influence of wastewater treatment on improved public health’, Water Science Technology 66(3): 644–52 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2012.144>.

Najle, Y. (2010) Human Rights to Water and Sanitation in Courts [pdf] consultation with civil society organisations on good practices, Geneva <http://wp.cedha.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/humans_rights_to_water_and_sanitation_in-courts.pdf> [accessed 16 September 2014]. http://wp.cedha.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/humans_rights_to_water_and_sanitation_in-courts.pdf

Obrist van Eeuwijk, B. (2009) ‘The daily governance of environmental health: gender perspectives from Dar es Salaam Tanzania’, in G. Blundo and P-Y. Le Meur (eds), The Governance of Daily Life in Africa: Ethnographic Explorations of Public and Collective Services, pp. 301–16, Leiden: Koniklijke Brill NV.

Opel, A. (2012) Challenge Critical: Absence of Faecal Sludge Management Shatters the Gains of Improved Sanitation Coverage in Bangladesh, London: WaterAid.

Palaniappan, M., Gleick, P.H., Allan, L., Cohen, M.J., Christian-Smith, J. and Smith, C. (2010) Clearing the Waters: A Focus on Water Quality Solutions, Nairobi: UNEP and Oakland, CA: Pacific Institute.

Puckett, L.J., Tesoriero, A.J. and Dubrovsky, N.M. (2011) ‘Nitrogen contamination of surficial aquifers: a growing legacy’, Environmental Science and Technology-Columbus 45(3): 839–44 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es1038358>.

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Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, James Anaya (SR Indig. Peoples) (2011) ‘Extractive industries operating within or near indigenous territories’ [online], A/HRC/18/35 <http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G11/146/39/pdf/G1114639.pdf?OpenElement> [accessed 24 September 2014] http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G11/146/39/pdf/G1114639.pdf?OpenElement

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Bain, R., Cronk, R., Hossain, R., Bonjour, S., Onda, K., Wright, .J, Yang, H., Slaymaker, T., Hunter, P., Prüss-Ustün, A. and Bartram, J. (2014), ‘Global assessment of exposure to faecal contamination through drinking water based on a systematic review’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 19(8), 917–927, <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12334>

Balazs, C., Morello-Frosch, R., Hubbard, A. and Ray, I. (2011) ‘Social disparities in nitratecontaminated drinking water in California's San Joaquin Valley’, Environmental Health Perspectives 119(9): 1272–8.

Biswas, A.K. and Tortajada, C. (2011) ‘Water quality management: an introductory framework’, International Journal of Water Resources Development 27(1): 5–11 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2010.547979>.

Black, M. and Fawcett, B. (2008) The Last Taboo: Opening the Door on the Global Sanitation Crisis, London: Earthscan.

Blundo, G. and Le Meur, P.-Y. (2009) ‘Introduction: an anthropology of everyday governance: collective service delivery and subject-making’, in G. Blundo and P-Y. Le Meur (eds), The Governance of Daily Life in Africa: Ethnographic Explorations of Public and Collective Services, pp. 1–38, Leiden: Koniklijke Brill NV.

Cleaver, F. (2002) ‘Reinventing institutions: bricolage and the social embeddedness of natural resource management’, The European Journal of Development Research 14(2): 11–30 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/714000425>.

Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) (2011) ‘Statement on the right to sanitation’ [online], E/C.12/2010.1 <http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G11/420/47/pdf/G1142047.pdf?OpenElement>. http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G11/420/47/pdf/G1142047.pdf?OpenElement

Corcoran, E., Nellemann, C., Baker, E., Bos, R., Osborn, D. and Savelli, H. (2010) Sick Water? The Central Role of Wastewater Management in Sustainable Development, Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP and UN-Habitat.

Eide, A. (2001) ‘Economic, social and cultural rights as human rights’, in A. Eide, C. Krause and A. Rosas (eds.), Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, A Textbook, 2nd edition, Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, pp. 9–28.

Etzold, B., Jülich, S., Keck, M., Sakdapolrak, P., Schmitt, T. and Zimmer, A. (2012) ‘Doing institutions: a dialectic reading of institutions and social practices and its relevance for development geography’, Erdkunde 66(3): 185–95 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3112/erdkunde.2012.03.01>.

Graham, S., Desai, R. and McFarlane, C. (2013) ‘Water wars in Mumbai’, Public Culture 25(1): 115–41 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/08992363-1890486>.

Harmony Gold Mining Company Ltd v. Regional Director: Free State Department of Water Affairs and Others (2012) 68161/2008 ZAGPPHC 127.

Harter, T. and Lund, J.R. (2012) Addressing Nitrate in California's Drinking Water, Davis: University of California.

Human Rights Council (HRC) (2010) ‘Human rights and access to safe drinking water and sanitation’ [online], A/HRC/RES/15/9 <http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G10/166/33/pdf/G1016633.pdf?OpenElement>. http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G10/166/33/pdf/G1016633.pdf?OpenElement

Independent Expert on the Issue of Human Rights Obligations Related to Access to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation, Catarina de Albuquerque (IE WatSan) (2009) ‘Human rights obligations related to access to sanitation’, A/HRC/12/24 http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G09/144/37/pdf/G0914437.pdf?OpenElement>. http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G09/144/37/pdf/G0914437.pdf?OpenElement

Independent Expert on the Issue of Human Rights Obligations Related to Access to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation, Catarina de Albuquerque (IE WatSan) (2010a) ‘The Millennium Development Goals’ [online], A/HRC/65/254 <http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N10/477/84/pdf/N1047784.pdf?OpenElement>. http://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N10/477/84/pdf/N1047784.pdf?OpenElement

Independent Expert on Extreme Poverty, Magdalena Sepulveda Carmona and Independent Expert On Water and Sanitation, Catarina de Albuquerque (IE WatSan) (2010b) ‘Mission to Bangladesh’ [online], A/HRC/15/55 <http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G10/154/51/pdf/G1015451.pdf?OpenElement> [accessed 24 September 2014]. http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G10/154/51/pdf/G1015451.pdf?OpenElement

Jenkins, M.W., Cumming, O., Scott,B. and Cairncross, S. (2014) ‘Beyond “improved” towards ‘safe and sustainable’ urban sanitation: assessing the design, management and functionality of sanitation in poor communities of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania”, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 4(1), 131–141, <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2013.180>.

Jiménez, B., et al. (2010), ‘Wastewater, sludge and excreta use in developing countries’ in P. Drechsel et al. (eds.), Wastewater Irrigation and Health, IDRC, pp. 3–28.

Johnstone, D. (2013) ‘Background discussion paper on wastewater and water quality targets and indicators’, Geneva: UN-Water (unpublished).

Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) (2014) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2014 Update [pdf] <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP_report_2014_webEng.pdf> [accessed 16 September 2014]. www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP_report_2014_webEng.pdf

Langford, M. and Winkler, I. (2014) ‘Muddying the Water? Assessing target-based approaches in development cooperation for water and sanitation’, Journal for Human Development and Capabilities 15(2-3): 247–60 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19452829.2014.896321>.

Lawhon, M., Ernstson, H. and Silver, J. (2014) ‘Provincializing urban political ecology: towards a situated UPE through African urbanism’, Antipode 46(2): 496–516 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/anti.12051>.

Lipsky, M. (2010) Street-level Bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Services, New York: Russell Sage Foundation Publications.

Miraftab, F. (2004) ‘Invited and invented spaces of participation: neoliberal citizenship and feminists’ expanded notion of politics’, Wagadu 1: 1–7.

Molle, F., Mollinga, P. and Wester, P. (2009) ‘Hydraulic bureaucracies and the hydraulic mission: flows of water, flows of power’, Water Alternatives 2(3): 328–49.

Momodu, M.A. and Anyakora, C.A. (2010) ‘Heavy metal contamination of ground water: the Surulere case study’, Research Journal Environmental and Earth Sciences 2(1): 39–43.

Naik, K.S. and Stenstrom, M.K. (2012) ‘Evidence of the influence of wastewater treatment on improved public health’, Water Science Technology 66(3): 644–52 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2012.144>.

Najle, Y. (2010) Human Rights to Water and Sanitation in Courts [pdf] consultation with civil society organisations on good practices, Geneva <http://wp.cedha.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/humans_rights_to_water_and_sanitation_in-courts.pdf> [accessed 16 September 2014]. http://wp.cedha.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/humans_rights_to_water_and_sanitation_in-courts.pdf

Obrist van Eeuwijk, B. (2009) ‘The daily governance of environmental health: gender perspectives from Dar es Salaam Tanzania’, in G. Blundo and P-Y. Le Meur (eds), The Governance of Daily Life in Africa: Ethnographic Explorations of Public and Collective Services, pp. 301–16, Leiden: Koniklijke Brill NV.

Opel, A. (2012) Challenge Critical: Absence of Faecal Sludge Management Shatters the Gains of Improved Sanitation Coverage in Bangladesh, London: WaterAid.

Palaniappan, M., Gleick, P.H., Allan, L., Cohen, M.J., Christian-Smith, J. and Smith, C. (2010) Clearing the Waters: A Focus on Water Quality Solutions, Nairobi: UNEP and Oakland, CA: Pacific Institute.

Puckett, L.J., Tesoriero, A.J. and Dubrovsky, N.M. (2011) ‘Nitrogen contamination of surficial aquifers: a growing legacy’, Environmental Science and Technology-Columbus 45(3): 839–44 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es1038358>.

PUB (2013) ‘Water Tariff’ [website], <www.pub.gov.sg/general/Pages/WaterTariff.aspx> [accessed 16 September 2014]. www.pub.gov.sg/general/Pages/WaterTariff.aspx

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