This article explores the evolution of Fairtrade impact assessment, which reflects the wider context of international development evaluation practice and debates. Appropriate designs and methods in evaluation are hotly contested, ultimately reflecting different development philosophies and values. Earlier Fairtrade impact studies were primarily case studies involving qualitative methods. As Fairtrade has grown and scrutiny from different stakeholders has increased, there has been increased demand for more rigour and criticism of studies that do not include a ‘credible’ counterfactual. More recently, there have been increasing numbers of impact evaluation studies using mixed designs as well as mixed methods. But challenges remain as to how to balance utility and rigour in Fairtrade impact assessment, because there are trade-offs in terms of skill and resource requirements and in relation to ethical issues. Yet all sustainability standards are being asked to both demonstrate impact and to inform impact. Achieving utility not only at higher levels of organizations in Fairtrade, but also for producers at the local level is a significant challenge, when ‘credibility’ in impact assessment is judged in some quarters as being the same as using counterfactual logics. In many cases the construction of a counterfactual is very difficult if not impossible. In this paper we seek to provide some practical suggestions for improving both rigour and utility.

Beach, D. and Pedersen, R.B. (2013) Process Tracing Methods: Foundations and Guidelines, Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.

Befani, B. (2012) Models of Causality and Causal Inference [online] Department for International Development (DfID) <http://betterevaluation.org/resources/guide/causality_and_causal_inference≯ [accessed 1 February 2014]. http://betterevaluation.org/resources/guide/causality_and_causal_inference

Blackman, A. and Rivera, J. (2010) ‘The evidence base for environmental and socio-economic impacts of “sustainable” certification’, Discussion Paper, Washington, DC: Resources for the Future.

Chambers, R. (2009) ‘So that the poor count more: using participatory methods for impact evaluation’, Journal of Development Effectiveness 1(3): 243-6.

Earl, S., Carden, F. and Smutylo, T. (2001) Outcome Mapping: Building Learning and Reflection into Development Programs, Ottawa, Canada: International Development Research Centre.

Edward, P. and Tallontire, A.M. (2009) ‘Business and development: towards re-politicisation’, Journal of International Development 21(6): 819-33.

Estrella, M. (ed.) with Blauert, J., Campilan, D., Gaventa, J. Gonsalves, J., Guijt, I., Johnson, D. and Ricafort, R. (2000) Issues and Experiences in Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation, Rugby, UK: Intermediate Technology Publications.

Eyben, R. (2013) Uncovering the Politics of ‘Evidence’ and ‘Results’: a Framing Paper for Development Practitioners [pdf] bigpushforward.net <http://bigpushforward.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Uncovering-the-Politics-of-Evidence-and-Results-by-Rosalind-Eyben.pdf≯ [accessed 18 December 2013]. http://bigpushforward.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Uncovering-the-Politics-of-Evidence-and-Results-by-Rosalind-Eyben.pdf

Garbarino, S. and Holland, J. (2009) Quantitative and Qualitative Methods in Impact Evaluation and Measuring Results [pdf] Governance and Social Development Resource Centre, Discussion Paper, University of Birmingham, UK <http://epapers.bham.ac.uk/646/1/eirs4.pdf≯ [accessed 18 December 2013]. http://epapers.bham.ac.uk/646/1/eirs4.pdf

George, A.L. and Bennett, A. (2005) Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Guijt, I., Arevalo, M. and Saladores, K. (1998) Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation: Tracking Change Together, PLA Notes Issue 31, pp. 28-36, London: IIED.

Holland, J. (ed.) (2013) Who Counts? The Power of Participatory Statistics, Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing.

International Trade Centre (ITC) (2011) The Impacts of Private Standards on Producers in Developing Countries, Literature Review Series on the Impacts of Private Standards; Part II (Doc. No. MAR-11-201.E), Geneva: ITC.

Jaffee, D. (2007) Brewing Justice: Fair Trade Coffee, Sustainability, and Survival, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Kissinger, G., Brasser, A. and Gross, L. (2013) Reducing Risk: Landscape Approaches to Sustainable Sourcing, Scoping Study [pdf] Washington, DC: Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Initiative <http://landscapes.ecoagriculture.org/documents/files/reducing_risk_synthesis_report.pdf≯ [accessed 19 December 2013]. http://landscapes.ecoagriculture.org/documents/files/reducing_risk_synthesis_report.pdf

Laroche, K., Jimenez, R. and Nelson, V. (2014) Assessing the Impact of Fairtrade in Peruvian Cocoa, study commissioned by Fairtrade International, Chatham, UK: NRI.

Mayne, J. (2008) Contribution Analysis: An Approach to Exploring Cause and Effect [pdf] Institutional Learning and Change Brief No. 7 <www.cgiar-ilac.org/files/publications/briefs/ILAC_Brief16_Contribution_Analysis.pdf≯ [accessed 1 February 2014]. www.cgiar-ilac.org/files/publications/briefs/ILAC_Brief16_Contribution_Analysis.pdf

Murray, D., Raynolds, L. and Taylor, P. (2003) One Cup at a Time: Poverty Alleviation and Fairtrade in Latin America, Fort Collins, CO: Fairtrade Research Group, Colorado State University.

Neilson, J. and Pritchard, B. (2009) Value Chain Struggles: Institutions and Governance in the Plantation Districts of South India, Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

Nelson, V. and Galvez, M. (2000) Assessing the Social Impact of Ethical and Conventional Cocoa in Ecuador, NRI report, Chatham, UK: University of Greenwich.

Nelson, V. and Martin, A. (2011) ‘Impact evaluation of social and environmental voluntary standard systems (SEVSS): using theories of change’, NRI Working Paper [pdf], Chatham, UK: University of Greenwich <www.nri.org/projects/tradestandards/docs/final_dfid_paper_on_using_theories_of_change_in_ie_of_standards.pdf≯ [accessed 5 February 2014]. www.nri.org/projects/tradestandards/docs/final_dfid_paper_on_using_theories_of_change_in_ie_of_standards.pdf

Nelson, V. and Martin, A. (2012) ‘The impact of Fairtrade: evidence, shaping factors, and future pathways’, Food Chain 2(1): 42-63 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/2046-1887.2012.005≯.

Nelson, V. and Martin, A. (2013a) Final Technical Report: Assessing the Poverty Impact of Sustainability Standards [pdf] Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute <www.nri.org/images/documents/project_websites/AssessingPovertyImpacts/AssessingThePovertyImpactOfSustainabilityStandards.pdf≯ [accessed 1 February 2014]. www.nri.org/images/documents/project_websites/AssessingPovertyImpacts/AssessingThePovertyImpactOfSustainabilityStandards.pdf

Nelson, V. and Martin, A. (2013b) The Strategic Use of Case Studies by Standard Systems, NRI Working Paper, Chatham: UK, Natural Resources Institute.

Nelson, V. and Pound, B. (2009) The Last Ten Years: A Comprehensive Assessment of the Impact of Fairtrade, NRI Report, Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute.

Nelson, V. and Smith, S. (2011) Fairtrade Cotton: Assessing Impact in Mali, Senegal, Cameroon and India: Main Report [pdf], Chatham, UK: NRI <www.nri.org/projects/fairtradecotton/docs/Impact%20of%20Fairtrade%20Cotton%20-%20main%20report%20-%20final%20Apr2012.pdf≯ [accessed 5 February 2014]. www.nri.org/projects/fairtradecotton/docs/Impact%20of%20Fairtrade%20Cotton%20-%20main%20report%20-%20final%20Apr2012.pdf

Nelson, V., Tallontire, A. and Collinson, C. (2002) ‘Assessing the potential of ethical trade schemes for forest dependent people: comparative experiences from Peru and Ecuador’, International Forestry Review 4: 99-110 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1505/IFOR.4.2.99.17440≯.

Natural Resources and Ethical Trade Programme (NRET) (1999) ‘Ethical trade and rural livelihoods’, in Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: What Difference Can We Make?, London: DFID.

Orr, A. (2013) ‘Why were so many social scientists wrong about the Green Revolution? Learning from Bangladesh’, The Journal of Development Studies 48(11): 1565-86 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2012.663905≯.

Oxfam (2013) Process Tracing: Draft Protocol [online] <http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/blog/2013/02/~/media/C396B507E01C47AB880D7EEF9ECCD171.ashx≯. http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/blog/2013/02/~/media/C396B507E01C47AB880D7EEF9ECCD171.ashx

Patton, M.Q. (2008) Utilisation-Focused Evaluation, 4th edn, London: Sage.

Pawson, R. and Tilley, N. (1997) Realistic Evaluation, London: Sage Publications.

Ragin, C.C. (1987) The Comparative Method: Moving beyond Qualitative and Quantitative Strategies, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Ramalingam, B. (2008) ‘Evaluation and the science of complexity’. Presented at the Evaluating Complexity Conference, NORAD, 29-30 May.

Ramalingam, B. (2011) Learning How to Learn: Eight Lessons for Impact Assessment that Make a Difference, Background Note, London: ODI.

Ramalingam, B. (2013) Aid on the Edge of Chaos: Rethinking International Cooperation in a Complex World, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Riddell, R. (2007) Does Foreign Aid Really Work? Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Roberts, S., Robins, N. and Abbot, J. (1999) Who Benefits? A Social Assessment of Environmentally- Driven Trade, London: IIED.

Roche, C. (1999) Impact Assessment for Development Agencies: Learning to Value Change, Oxford, UK: Oxfam Publications.

Ronchi, L. (2002a) The Impact of Fairtrade on Producers and their Organisations: A Case Study with COOCAFÉ in Costa Rica, PRUS working paper, No. 11 [pdf], Poverty Research Unit, University of Sussex <www.sussex.ac.uk/Units/PRU/wps/wp11.pdf≯ [accessed 5 February 2014]. www.sussex.ac.uk/Units/PRU/wps/wp11.pdf

Ronchi, L. (2002b) Monitoring Impact of Fairtrade Initiatives: A Case Study of Kuapa Kokoo and the Day Chocolate Company [pdf] London, UK: TWIN <http://portals.wi.wur.nl/files/docs/ppme/TwinMEKuapaandDayA_5version.pdf≯ [accessed 5 February 2014]. http://portals.wi.wur.nl/files/docs/ppme/TwinMEKuapaandDayA_5version.pdf

Ruben, P., Fort, R. and Zuniga, G. (2008) Final Report. Fairtrade Programme Evaluation: Impact Assessment of Fairtrade Programs for Coffee and Bananas in Peru, Costa Rica and Ghana, study assignment by Solidaridad Coordinated by the Centre for International Development Issues (CIDIN), The Netherlands: Radboud University Nijmegen.

Solidaridad (2012) The Solidaridad Network 2012 Annual Report [pdf] Netherlands: Solidaridad <http://solidaridadnetwork.org/sites/solidaridadnetwork.org/files/The%20Solidaridad%20network%202012%20annual%20report.pdf≯ [accessed 5 February 2014]. http://solidaridadnetwork.org/sites/solidaridadnetwork.org/files/The%20Solidaridad%20network%202012%20annual%20report.pdf

Stern, E., Stame, N., Mayne, J., Forss, K., Davies, R. and Befani, B. (2012) Broadening the Range of Designs and Methods for Impact Evaluations [pdf], Working Paper 38, April 2012, report of a study commissioned by DFID, London: DFID <https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/67427/design-method-impact-eval.pdf≯ [accessed 5 February 2014]. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/67427/design-method-impact-eval.pdf

SustainAbility (2011) ‘Signed, sealed, delivered: behind certifications and beyond labels’, London and Washington, DC: SustainAbility <www.sustainability.com/library/signedsealed-delivered-1#.UrLWGImYbIU≯ [accessed 19 December 2013]. www.sustainability.com/library/signedsealed-delivered-1#.UrLWGImYbIU

Tallontire, A., Nelson, V., Dixon, J. and Benton, T. (2012) A Review of the Literature and Knowledge of Standards and Certification Systems in Agricultural Production and Farming, NRI Working Paper no 2, Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute.

Twin (2012) Making International Supply Chains Work for Smallholder Farmers: A Comparative Study of Six Fair Trade Value Chains [pdf] London: Fairtrade Foundation <www.fairtrade.org.uk/includes/documents/cm_docs/2012/M/Making_international_supply_chains_work_for_smallholder%20farmers.pdf≯ [accessed 18 December 2013]. www.fairtrade.org.uk/includes/documents/cm_docs/2012/M/Making_international_supply_chains_work_for_smallholder%20farmers.pdf

Unilever, Oxfam, IIED (2012) Measuring Fairness in Supply Chain Relationships: Methodology Guide [pdf] London: IIED <http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/16042IIED.pdf≯ [accessed 18 December 2013]. http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/16042IIED.pdf

Vorley, B., Cotula, L. and Chan, M.K. (2013) Tipping the Balance: Policies to Shape Agricultural Investments and Markets in Favour of Small-Scale Farmers, research report, December 2013, London: IIED; Oxford: Oxfam.

Woolcock, M., Rao, V. and Bamberger, M. (2010) ‘Using mixed methods in monitoring and impact evaluation’, Policy Research Working Paper 5242 [online], World Bank Poverty and Inequality Team <http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/1813-9450-5245≯ [accessed 17 December 2013]. http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/1813-9450-5245

Yin, R.K. (2014) Case Study Research: Design and Methods, 5th edn, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

3iE website <www.3ieimpact.org/≯ [accessed 10 December 2013]. www.3ieimpact.org/

Beach, D. and Pedersen, R.B. (2013) Process Tracing Methods: Foundations and Guidelines, Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.

Befani, B. (2012) Models of Causality and Causal Inference [online] Department for International Development (DfID) <http://betterevaluation.org/resources/guide/causality_and_causal_inference≯ [accessed 1 February 2014]. http://betterevaluation.org/resources/guide/causality_and_causal_inference

Blackman, A. and Rivera, J. (2010) ‘The evidence base for environmental and socio-economic impacts of “sustainable” certification’, Discussion Paper, Washington, DC: Resources for the Future.

Chambers, R. (2009) ‘So that the poor count more: using participatory methods for impact evaluation’, Journal of Development Effectiveness 1(3): 243-6.

Earl, S., Carden, F. and Smutylo, T. (2001) Outcome Mapping: Building Learning and Reflection into Development Programs, Ottawa, Canada: International Development Research Centre.

Edward, P. and Tallontire, A.M. (2009) ‘Business and development: towards re-politicisation’, Journal of International Development 21(6): 819-33.

Estrella, M. (ed.) with Blauert, J., Campilan, D., Gaventa, J. Gonsalves, J., Guijt, I., Johnson, D. and Ricafort, R. (2000) Issues and Experiences in Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation, Rugby, UK: Intermediate Technology Publications.

Eyben, R. (2013) Uncovering the Politics of ‘Evidence’ and ‘Results’: a Framing Paper for Development Practitioners [pdf] bigpushforward.net <http://bigpushforward.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Uncovering-the-Politics-of-Evidence-and-Results-by-Rosalind-Eyben.pdf≯ [accessed 18 December 2013]. http://bigpushforward.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Uncovering-the-Politics-of-Evidence-and-Results-by-Rosalind-Eyben.pdf

Garbarino, S. and Holland, J. (2009) Quantitative and Qualitative Methods in Impact Evaluation and Measuring Results [pdf] Governance and Social Development Resource Centre, Discussion Paper, University of Birmingham, UK <http://epapers.bham.ac.uk/646/1/eirs4.pdf≯ [accessed 18 December 2013]. http://epapers.bham.ac.uk/646/1/eirs4.pdf

George, A.L. and Bennett, A. (2005) Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Guijt, I., Arevalo, M. and Saladores, K. (1998) Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation: Tracking Change Together, PLA Notes Issue 31, pp. 28-36, London: IIED.

Holland, J. (ed.) (2013) Who Counts? The Power of Participatory Statistics, Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing.

International Trade Centre (ITC) (2011) The Impacts of Private Standards on Producers in Developing Countries, Literature Review Series on the Impacts of Private Standards; Part II (Doc. No. MAR-11-201.E), Geneva: ITC.

Jaffee, D. (2007) Brewing Justice: Fair Trade Coffee, Sustainability, and Survival, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Kissinger, G., Brasser, A. and Gross, L. (2013) Reducing Risk: Landscape Approaches to Sustainable Sourcing, Scoping Study [pdf] Washington, DC: Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Initiative <http://landscapes.ecoagriculture.org/documents/files/reducing_risk_synthesis_report.pdf≯ [accessed 19 December 2013]. http://landscapes.ecoagriculture.org/documents/files/reducing_risk_synthesis_report.pdf

Laroche, K., Jimenez, R. and Nelson, V. (2014) Assessing the Impact of Fairtrade in Peruvian Cocoa, study commissioned by Fairtrade International, Chatham, UK: NRI.

Mayne, J. (2008) Contribution Analysis: An Approach to Exploring Cause and Effect [pdf] Institutional Learning and Change Brief No. 7 <www.cgiar-ilac.org/files/publications/briefs/ILAC_Brief16_Contribution_Analysis.pdf≯ [accessed 1 February 2014]. www.cgiar-ilac.org/files/publications/briefs/ILAC_Brief16_Contribution_Analysis.pdf

Murray, D., Raynolds, L. and Taylor, P. (2003) One Cup at a Time: Poverty Alleviation and Fairtrade in Latin America, Fort Collins, CO: Fairtrade Research Group, Colorado State University.

Neilson, J. and Pritchard, B. (2009) Value Chain Struggles: Institutions and Governance in the Plantation Districts of South India, Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

Nelson, V. and Galvez, M. (2000) Assessing the Social Impact of Ethical and Conventional Cocoa in Ecuador, NRI report, Chatham, UK: University of Greenwich.

Nelson, V. and Martin, A. (2011) ‘Impact evaluation of social and environmental voluntary standard systems (SEVSS): using theories of change’, NRI Working Paper [pdf], Chatham, UK: University of Greenwich <www.nri.org/projects/tradestandards/docs/final_dfid_paper_on_using_theories_of_change_in_ie_of_standards.pdf≯ [accessed 5 February 2014]. www.nri.org/projects/tradestandards/docs/final_dfid_paper_on_using_theories_of_change_in_ie_of_standards.pdf

Nelson, V. and Martin, A. (2012) ‘The impact of Fairtrade: evidence, shaping factors, and future pathways’, Food Chain 2(1): 42-63 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/2046-1887.2012.005≯.

Nelson, V. and Martin, A. (2013a) Final Technical Report: Assessing the Poverty Impact of Sustainability Standards [pdf] Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute <www.nri.org/images/documents/project_websites/AssessingPovertyImpacts/AssessingThePovertyImpactOfSustainabilityStandards.pdf≯ [accessed 1 February 2014]. www.nri.org/images/documents/project_websites/AssessingPovertyImpacts/AssessingThePovertyImpactOfSustainabilityStandards.pdf

Nelson, V. and Martin, A. (2013b) The Strategic Use of Case Studies by Standard Systems, NRI Working Paper, Chatham: UK, Natural Resources Institute.

Nelson, V. and Pound, B. (2009) The Last Ten Years: A Comprehensive Assessment of the Impact of Fairtrade, NRI Report, Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute.

Nelson, V. and Smith, S. (2011) Fairtrade Cotton: Assessing Impact in Mali, Senegal, Cameroon and India: Main Report [pdf], Chatham, UK: NRI <www.nri.org/projects/fairtradecotton/docs/Impact%20of%20Fairtrade%20Cotton%20-%20main%20report%20-%20final%20Apr2012.pdf≯ [accessed 5 February 2014]. www.nri.org/projects/fairtradecotton/docs/Impact%20of%20Fairtrade%20Cotton%20-%20main%20report%20-%20final%20Apr2012.pdf

Nelson, V., Tallontire, A. and Collinson, C. (2002) ‘Assessing the potential of ethical trade schemes for forest dependent people: comparative experiences from Peru and Ecuador’, International Forestry Review 4: 99-110 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1505/IFOR.4.2.99.17440≯.

Natural Resources and Ethical Trade Programme (NRET) (1999) ‘Ethical trade and rural livelihoods’, in Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: What Difference Can We Make?, London: DFID.

Orr, A. (2013) ‘Why were so many social scientists wrong about the Green Revolution? Learning from Bangladesh’, The Journal of Development Studies 48(11): 1565-86 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2012.663905≯.

Oxfam (2013) Process Tracing: Draft Protocol [online] <http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/blog/2013/02/~/media/C396B507E01C47AB880D7EEF9ECCD171.ashx≯. http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/blog/2013/02/~/media/C396B507E01C47AB880D7EEF9ECCD171.ashx

Patton, M.Q. (2008) Utilisation-Focused Evaluation, 4th edn, London: Sage.

Pawson, R. and Tilley, N. (1997) Realistic Evaluation, London: Sage Publications.

Ragin, C.C. (1987) The Comparative Method: Moving beyond Qualitative and Quantitative Strategies, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Ramalingam, B. (2008) ‘Evaluation and the science of complexity’. Presented at the Evaluating Complexity Conference, NORAD, 29-30 May.

Ramalingam, B. (2011) Learning How to Learn: Eight Lessons for Impact Assessment that Make a Difference, Background Note, London: ODI.

Ramalingam, B. (2013) Aid on the Edge of Chaos: Rethinking International Cooperation in a Complex World, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Riddell, R. (2007) Does Foreign Aid Really Work? Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Roberts, S., Robins, N. and Abbot, J. (1999) Who Benefits? A Social Assessment of Environmentally- Driven Trade, London: IIED.

Roche, C. (1999) Impact Assessment for Development Agencies: Learning to Value Change, Oxford, UK: Oxfam Publications.

Ronchi, L. (2002a) The Impact of Fairtrade on Producers and their Organisations: A Case Study with COOCAFÉ in Costa Rica, PRUS working paper, No. 11 [pdf], Poverty Research Unit, University of Sussex <www.sussex.ac.uk/Units/PRU/wps/wp11.pdf≯ [accessed 5 February 2014]. www.sussex.ac.uk/Units/PRU/wps/wp11.pdf

Ronchi, L. (2002b) Monitoring Impact of Fairtrade Initiatives: A Case Study of Kuapa Kokoo and the Day Chocolate Company [pdf] London, UK: TWIN <http://portals.wi.wur.nl/files/docs/ppme/TwinMEKuapaandDayA_5version.pdf≯ [accessed 5 February 2014]. http://portals.wi.wur.nl/files/docs/ppme/TwinMEKuapaandDayA_5version.pdf

Ruben, P., Fort, R. and Zuniga, G. (2008) Final Report. Fairtrade Programme Evaluation: Impact Assessment of Fairtrade Programs for Coffee and Bananas in Peru, Costa Rica and Ghana, study assignment by Solidaridad Coordinated by the Centre for International Development Issues (CIDIN), The Netherlands: Radboud University Nijmegen.

Solidaridad (2012) The Solidaridad Network 2012 Annual Report [pdf] Netherlands: Solidaridad <http://solidaridadnetwork.org/sites/solidaridadnetwork.org/files/The%20Solidaridad%20network%202012%20annual%20report.pdf≯ [accessed 5 February 2014]. http://solidaridadnetwork.org/sites/solidaridadnetwork.org/files/The%20Solidaridad%20network%202012%20annual%20report.pdf

Stern, E., Stame, N., Mayne, J., Forss, K., Davies, R. and Befani, B. (2012) Broadening the Range of Designs and Methods for Impact Evaluations [pdf], Working Paper 38, April 2012, report of a study commissioned by DFID, London: DFID <https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/67427/design-method-impact-eval.pdf≯ [accessed 5 February 2014]. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/67427/design-method-impact-eval.pdf

SustainAbility (2011) ‘Signed, sealed, delivered: behind certifications and beyond labels’, London and Washington, DC: SustainAbility <www.sustainability.com/library/signedsealed-delivered-1#.UrLWGImYbIU≯ [accessed 19 December 2013]. www.sustainability.com/library/signedsealed-delivered-1#.UrLWGImYbIU

Tallontire, A., Nelson, V., Dixon, J. and Benton, T. (2012) A Review of the Literature and Knowledge of Standards and Certification Systems in Agricultural Production and Farming, NRI Working Paper no 2, Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute.

Twin (2012) Making International Supply Chains Work for Smallholder Farmers: A Comparative Study of Six Fair Trade Value Chains [pdf] London: Fairtrade Foundation <www.fairtrade.org.uk/includes/documents/cm_docs/2012/M/Making_international_supply_chains_work_for_smallholder%20farmers.pdf≯ [accessed 18 December 2013]. www.fairtrade.org.uk/includes/documents/cm_docs/2012/M/Making_international_supply_chains_work_for_smallholder%20farmers.pdf

Unilever, Oxfam, IIED (2012) Measuring Fairness in Supply Chain Relationships: Methodology Guide [pdf] London: IIED <http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/16042IIED.pdf≯ [accessed 18 December 2013]. http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/16042IIED.pdf

Vorley, B., Cotula, L. and Chan, M.K. (2013) Tipping the Balance: Policies to Shape Agricultural Investments and Markets in Favour of Small-Scale Farmers, research report, December 2013, London: IIED; Oxford: Oxfam.

Woolcock, M., Rao, V. and Bamberger, M. (2010) ‘Using mixed methods in monitoring and impact evaluation’, Policy Research Working Paper 5242 [online], World Bank Poverty and Inequality Team <http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/1813-9450-5245≯ [accessed 17 December 2013]. http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/1813-9450-5245

Yin, R.K. (2014) Case Study Research: Design and Methods, 5th edn, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

3iE website <www.3ieimpact.org/≯ [accessed 10 December 2013]. www.3ieimpact.org/

Beach, D. and Pedersen, R.B. (2013) Process Tracing Methods: Foundations and Guidelines, Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.

Befani, B. (2012) Models of Causality and Causal Inference [online] Department for International Development (DfID) <http://betterevaluation.org/resources/guide/causality_and_causal_inference≯ [accessed 1 February 2014]. http://betterevaluation.org/resources/guide/causality_and_causal_inference

Blackman, A. and Rivera, J. (2010) ‘The evidence base for environmental and socio-economic impacts of “sustainable” certification’, Discussion Paper, Washington, DC: Resources for the Future.

Chambers, R. (2009) ‘So that the poor count more: using participatory methods for impact evaluation’, Journal of Development Effectiveness 1(3): 243-6.

Earl, S., Carden, F. and Smutylo, T. (2001) Outcome Mapping: Building Learning and Reflection into Development Programs, Ottawa, Canada: International Development Research Centre.

Edward, P. and Tallontire, A.M. (2009) ‘Business and development: towards re-politicisation’, Journal of International Development 21(6): 819-33.

Estrella, M. (ed.) with Blauert, J., Campilan, D., Gaventa, J. Gonsalves, J., Guijt, I., Johnson, D. and Ricafort, R. (2000) Issues and Experiences in Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation, Rugby, UK: Intermediate Technology Publications.

Eyben, R. (2013) Uncovering the Politics of ‘Evidence’ and ‘Results’: a Framing Paper for Development Practitioners [pdf] bigpushforward.net <http://bigpushforward.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Uncovering-the-Politics-of-Evidence-and-Results-by-Rosalind-Eyben.pdf≯ [accessed 18 December 2013]. http://bigpushforward.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Uncovering-the-Politics-of-Evidence-and-Results-by-Rosalind-Eyben.pdf

Garbarino, S. and Holland, J. (2009) Quantitative and Qualitative Methods in Impact Evaluation and Measuring Results [pdf] Governance and Social Development Resource Centre, Discussion Paper, University of Birmingham, UK <http://epapers.bham.ac.uk/646/1/eirs4.pdf≯ [accessed 18 December 2013]. http://epapers.bham.ac.uk/646/1/eirs4.pdf

George, A.L. and Bennett, A. (2005) Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

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Nelson, V. and Smith, S. (2011) Fairtrade Cotton: Assessing Impact in Mali, Senegal, Cameroon and India: Main Report [pdf], Chatham, UK: NRI <www.nri.org/projects/fairtradecotton/docs/Impact%20of%20Fairtrade%20Cotton%20-%20main%20report%20-%20final%20Apr2012.pdf≯ [accessed 5 February 2014]. www.nri.org/projects/fairtradecotton/docs/Impact%20of%20Fairtrade%20Cotton%20-%20main%20report%20-%20final%20Apr2012.pdf

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Guijt, I., Arevalo, M. and Saladores, K. (1998) Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation: Tracking Change Together, PLA Notes Issue 31, pp. 28-36, London: IIED.

Holland, J. (ed.) (2013) Who Counts? The Power of Participatory Statistics, Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing.

International Trade Centre (ITC) (2011) The Impacts of Private Standards on Producers in Developing Countries, Literature Review Series on the Impacts of Private Standards; Part II (Doc. No. MAR-11-201.E), Geneva: ITC.

Jaffee, D. (2007) Brewing Justice: Fair Trade Coffee, Sustainability, and Survival, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Kissinger, G., Brasser, A. and Gross, L. (2013) Reducing Risk: Landscape Approaches to Sustainable Sourcing, Scoping Study [pdf] Washington, DC: Landscapes for People, Food and Nature Initiative <http://landscapes.ecoagriculture.org/documents/files/reducing_risk_synthesis_report.pdf≯ [accessed 19 December 2013]. http://landscapes.ecoagriculture.org/documents/files/reducing_risk_synthesis_report.pdf

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Murray, D., Raynolds, L. and Taylor, P. (2003) One Cup at a Time: Poverty Alleviation and Fairtrade in Latin America, Fort Collins, CO: Fairtrade Research Group, Colorado State University.

Neilson, J. and Pritchard, B. (2009) Value Chain Struggles: Institutions and Governance in the Plantation Districts of South India, Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

Nelson, V. and Galvez, M. (2000) Assessing the Social Impact of Ethical and Conventional Cocoa in Ecuador, NRI report, Chatham, UK: University of Greenwich.

Nelson, V. and Martin, A. (2011) ‘Impact evaluation of social and environmental voluntary standard systems (SEVSS): using theories of change’, NRI Working Paper [pdf], Chatham, UK: University of Greenwich <www.nri.org/projects/tradestandards/docs/final_dfid_paper_on_using_theories_of_change_in_ie_of_standards.pdf≯ [accessed 5 February 2014]. www.nri.org/projects/tradestandards/docs/final_dfid_paper_on_using_theories_of_change_in_ie_of_standards.pdf

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Nelson, V. and Martin, A. (2013a) Final Technical Report: Assessing the Poverty Impact of Sustainability Standards [pdf] Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute <www.nri.org/images/documents/project_websites/AssessingPovertyImpacts/AssessingThePovertyImpactOfSustainabilityStandards.pdf≯ [accessed 1 February 2014]. www.nri.org/images/documents/project_websites/AssessingPovertyImpacts/AssessingThePovertyImpactOfSustainabilityStandards.pdf

Nelson, V. and Martin, A. (2013b) The Strategic Use of Case Studies by Standard Systems, NRI Working Paper, Chatham: UK, Natural Resources Institute.

Nelson, V. and Pound, B. (2009) The Last Ten Years: A Comprehensive Assessment of the Impact of Fairtrade, NRI Report, Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute.

Nelson, V. and Smith, S. (2011) Fairtrade Cotton: Assessing Impact in Mali, Senegal, Cameroon and India: Main Report [pdf], Chatham, UK: NRI <www.nri.org/projects/fairtradecotton/docs/Impact%20of%20Fairtrade%20Cotton%20-%20main%20report%20-%20final%20Apr2012.pdf≯ [accessed 5 February 2014]. www.nri.org/projects/fairtradecotton/docs/Impact%20of%20Fairtrade%20Cotton%20-%20main%20report%20-%20final%20Apr2012.pdf

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Natural Resources and Ethical Trade Programme (NRET) (1999) ‘Ethical trade and rural livelihoods’, in Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: What Difference Can We Make?, London: DFID.

Orr, A. (2013) ‘Why were so many social scientists wrong about the Green Revolution? Learning from Bangladesh’, The Journal of Development Studies 48(11): 1565-86 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2012.663905≯.

Oxfam (2013) Process Tracing: Draft Protocol [online] <http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/blog/2013/02/~/media/C396B507E01C47AB880D7EEF9ECCD171.ashx≯. http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/blog/2013/02/~/media/C396B507E01C47AB880D7EEF9ECCD171.ashx

Patton, M.Q. (2008) Utilisation-Focused Evaluation, 4th edn, London: Sage.

Pawson, R. and Tilley, N. (1997) Realistic Evaluation, London: Sage Publications.

Ragin, C.C. (1987) The Comparative Method: Moving beyond Qualitative and Quantitative Strategies, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Ramalingam, B. (2008) ‘Evaluation and the science of complexity’. Presented at the Evaluating Complexity Conference, NORAD, 29-30 May.

Ramalingam, B. (2011) Learning How to Learn: Eight Lessons for Impact Assessment that Make a Difference, Background Note, London: ODI.

Ramalingam, B. (2013) Aid on the Edge of Chaos: Rethinking International Cooperation in a Complex World, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Riddell, R. (2007) Does Foreign Aid Really Work? Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Roberts, S., Robins, N. and Abbot, J. (1999) Who Benefits? A Social Assessment of Environmentally- Driven Trade, London: IIED.

Roche, C. (1999) Impact Assessment for Development Agencies: Learning to Value Change, Oxford, UK: Oxfam Publications.

Ronchi, L. (2002a) The Impact of Fairtrade on Producers and their Organisations: A Case Study with COOCAFÉ in Costa Rica, PRUS working paper, No. 11 [pdf], Poverty Research Unit, University of Sussex <www.sussex.ac.uk/Units/PRU/wps/wp11.pdf≯ [accessed 5 February 2014]. www.sussex.ac.uk/Units/PRU/wps/wp11.pdf

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Ruben, P., Fort, R. and Zuniga, G. (2008) Final Report. Fairtrade Programme Evaluation: Impact Assessment of Fairtrade Programs for Coffee and Bananas in Peru, Costa Rica and Ghana, study assignment by Solidaridad Coordinated by the Centre for International Development Issues (CIDIN), The Netherlands: Radboud University Nijmegen.

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Tallontire, A., Nelson, V., Dixon, J. and Benton, T. (2012) A Review of the Literature and Knowledge of Standards and Certification Systems in Agricultural Production and Farming, NRI Working Paper no 2, Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute.

Twin (2012) Making International Supply Chains Work for Smallholder Farmers: A Comparative Study of Six Fair Trade Value Chains [pdf] London: Fairtrade Foundation <www.fairtrade.org.uk/includes/documents/cm_docs/2012/M/Making_international_supply_chains_work_for_smallholder%20farmers.pdf≯ [accessed 18 December 2013]. www.fairtrade.org.uk/includes/documents/cm_docs/2012/M/Making_international_supply_chains_work_for_smallholder%20farmers.pdf

Unilever, Oxfam, IIED (2012) Measuring Fairness in Supply Chain Relationships: Methodology Guide [pdf] London: IIED <http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/16042IIED.pdf≯ [accessed 18 December 2013]. http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/16042IIED.pdf

Vorley, B., Cotula, L. and Chan, M.K. (2013) Tipping the Balance: Policies to Shape Agricultural Investments and Markets in Favour of Small-Scale Farmers, research report, December 2013, London: IIED; Oxford: Oxfam.

Woolcock, M., Rao, V. and Bamberger, M. (2010) ‘Using mixed methods in monitoring and impact evaluation’, Policy Research Working Paper 5242 [online], World Bank Poverty and Inequality Team <http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/1813-9450-5245≯ [accessed 17 December 2013]. http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/1813-9450-5245

Yin, R.K. (2014) Case Study Research: Design and Methods, 5th edn, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

3iE website <www.3ieimpact.org/≯ [accessed 10 December 2013]. www.3ieimpact.org/