An apparent contributory factor to the upward trend in food prices in recent years has been the rapid explosion in biofuel production in some countries, which has usually occurred as a result of government blending mandates and subsidies. Lacking suitable land in developing countries for large-scale operations, companies seeking supplies of appropriate feedstock have often turned to contract farming as a way of securing supplies. This article reviews the available literature covering this topic, noting that significant difficulties have been experienced with biofuel contract farming operations, with few, if any, real successes. These problems are attributed to a lack of understanding on the part of the companies of the capacities of smallholders, the general lack of experience of biofuel companies with contract farming including suitable price-setting methods, the impact of biofuel production on farmers’ food production, and, finally, the lack of appropriate policies. The enthusiasm for subsidizing the sector has contributed to the difficulties. The paper concludes that there is a need to re-examine the costs and benefits of subsidies and their impact on successful commercial operations involving small farmers. Further, companies need to take lessons from experiences with more traditional contract farming operations.

Abramovay, R. and Magalhães, R. (2007) ‘The access of family farmers to biodiesel markets: partnerships between large companies and social movements’ [pdf] London: IIED <http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G03239.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G03239.pdf

African Biodiversity Network (2010) ‘Biofuels - a failure for Africa’, prepared in association with the Ethiopian Society for Consumer Protection and The Gaia Foundation <www.africanbiodiversity.org/sites/default/files/PDFs/Biofuels%20-%20A%20Failure%20for%20Africa%20(ABN,%20Dec%202010).pdf≯ [accessed 10 May 2013]. www.africanbiodiversity.org/sites/default/files/PDFs/Biofuels%20-%20A%20Failure%20for%20Africa%20(ABN,%20Dec%202010).pdf

Andrade, R.M.T. and Miccolis, A. (2011) Policies and Institutional and Legal Frameworks in the Expansion of Brazilian Biofuels, CIFOR <www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP71CIFOR.pdf≯ [accessed 2 July 2013]. www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP71CIFOR.pdf

Ariza-Montobbio, P. and Lele, S. (2010) ‘Jatropha plantations for biodiesel in Tamil Nadu, India: viability, livelihood trade-offs and latent conflict’, Ecological Economics 70 (2): 189-95 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.05.011≯.

Balkema, A.J. and Romijn, H.A. (2011) Innovative Business Models for Sustainable Biofuel Production: The Case of Tanzania Smallholder Jatropha Farmers in the Global Value Chain [pdf], Eindhoven Centre for Innovation Studies <http://cms.tm.tue.nl/Ecis/Files/papers/wp2011/wp1106.pdf≯ [accessed 10 May 2013]. http://cms.tm.tue.nl/Ecis/Files/papers/wp2011/wp1106.pdf

Bastos Lima, M.G. (2011) An Institutional Analysis of Biofuel Policies and their Social Implications in Developing Countries [pdf], Geneva: UNRISD <www.unrisd.org/80256B42004CCC77/(httpInfoFiles)/00303FB7BAB1D319C1257921005030A5/$file/6-4%20Bastos%20Lima.pdf≯ [accessed 2 July 2013]. www.unrisd.org/80256B42004CCC77/(httpInfoFiles)/00303FB7BAB1D319C1257921005030A5/$file/6-4%20Bastos%20Lima.pdf

Beall, E. (ed.) (2012) Smallholders in Global Bioenergy Value Chains and Certification [pdf] Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2597e/i2597e00.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2597e/i2597e00.pdf

Bijman, J., Slingerland, M. and van Baren, S. (2009) ‘Contractual arrangements for smallholders in biofuel chains: a case study of jatropha in Mozambique’, VII International PENSA Conference, São Paulo, Brazil [pdf] <www.foodorfuel.org/sites/foodorfuel.org/files/docs/Bijman_et_al_2009.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.foodorfuel.org/sites/foodorfuel.org/files/docs/Bijman_et_al_2009.pdf

Contract Farming Resource Centre website <www.fao.org/ag/ags/contract-farming/en/≯ [accessed 2 October 2013]. www.fao.org/ag/ags/contract-farming/en/

Da Silva, C.A. (2005) The Growing Role of Contract Farming in Agri-food Systems Development: Drivers, Theory and Practice [pdf] AGS Working Document 9, Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ags/publications/AGSF_WD_9.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ags/publications/AGSF_WD_9.pdf

De Schutter, O. (2011) The Right to Food: Note by the Secretary-General [pdf], UN General Assembly, Doc. A/66/262 <www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Food/A.66.262_en.pdf≯ [accessed 5 August 2013]. www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Food/A.66.262_en.pdf

Eaton, C. and Shepherd, A.W. (2001) Contract Farming: Partnerships for Growth [pdf], Agricultural Services Bulletin 145, Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/docrep/014/y0937e/y0937e00.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. www.fao.org/docrep/014/y0937e/y0937e00.pdf

Elbehri, A., Segerstedt, A. and Liu, P. (2013) Biofuels and the Sustainability Challenge: A Global Assessment of Sustainability Issues, Trends and Policies for Biofuels and Related Feedstocks [pdf] Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/docrep/017/i3126e/i3126e.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.fao.org/docrep/017/i3126e/i3126e.pdf

Ewing, M. and Msangi, S. (2009) ‘Biofuels production in developing countries: assessing tradeoffs in welfare and food security’, Environmental Science & Policy 12: 520-28 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2008.10.002≯.

FAO (2012) Guiding Principles for Responsible Contract Farming Operations [pdf], Rome: AGS Division, FAO <http://makingtheconnection.cta.int/sites/default/files/CF_Brief_web.pdf≯ [accessed 5 August 2013]. http://makingtheconnection.cta.int/sites/default/files/CF_Brief_web.pdf

Feintrenie, L., Chong, W.K. and Levang, P. (2010) ‘Why do farmers prefer oil palm? Lessons learnt from Bungu District, Indonesia’, Small-scale Forestry 9: 379-96 [online] <www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/AFeintrenie1002.pdf≯ [accessed 2 July 2013]. www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/AFeintrenie1002.pdf

Gomes, M. and Glass, V. (2012) ‘New partnerships: promise or poison to small farmers? Palm oil biofuel production in the Amazon’ in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 20-23 <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversionereportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversionereportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

Höllinger, F. (2004) Financing Agricultural Term Investments [pdf], Agricultural Finance Revisited, No. 7, Rome: FAO and GTZ <www.ruralfinance.org/fileadmin/templates/rflc/documents/1116343960230_Afr7_E.pdf≯ [accessed 5 August 2013]. www.ruralfinance.org/fileadmin/templates/rflc/documents/1116343960230_Afr7_E.pdf

Hospes, O. (2012) ‘Conclusions and recommendations’, in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 31-34 [pdf] <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

Khairnur, L. and Hermawansyah (2012) ‘Clearing land, fuelling conflict’, in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 24-26 [pdf] <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

Lee, J.S.H., Rist, L., Obidzinski, K., Ghazoul, J. and Pin Koh, L. (2011) ‘No farmer left behind in sustainable biofuel production’, Biologicial Conservation 144 (10): 2512-16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.07.006≯ [accessed 5 May 2013].

Mabiso, A. (2012) Participation of Smallholder Farmers in Biofuels Crop and Land Rental Markets: Evidence from South Africa [pdf] <http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/126370/2/Mabiso_a_2011_paper_1633_abstract_10435_0%5B1%5D.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/126370/2/Mabiso_a_2011_paper_1633_abstract_10435_0%5B1%5D.pdf

Moges, K.T. (2010) Smallholder Farmers and Biofuel: Farmers’ Perspectives in Growing Castor Beans in Ethiopia [pdf], Master's Thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences <http://stud.epsilon.slu.se/2327/1/moges_k_t_110303.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. http://stud.epsilon.slu.se/2327/1/moges_k_t_110303.pdf

Montefrio, M.J.F. and Sonnenfeld, D.A. (2013) ‘Global-local tensions in contract farming of biofuel crops involving indigenous communities in the Philippines’, Society and Natural Resources 26(3): 239-53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2012.682114≯.

Narayanan, S. (forthcoming) ‘Geography matters: evidence and implications of spatial selection in contract farming schemes in southern India’, in C. da Silva, R. Christy and N. Mhlanga (eds.), Innovative Institutions, Public Policies, and Private Strategies for Agro-Enterprise Development, Scientific Publishers, UK.

Oyuela, D., Erazo, D. and Hernandez, E. (2012) ‘Energy crops, partnerships and new opportunities: experiences in the southern part of Honduras’, in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 10-13 [pdf] <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

Prowse, M. (2012) Contract Farming in Developing Countries: A Review [pdf], AFD <www.afd.fr/webdav/site/afd/shared/PUBLICATIONS/RECHERCHE/Scientifiques/A-savoir/12-VA-A-Savoir.pdf≯ [accessed 5 August 2013]. www.afd.fr/webdav/site/afd/shared/PUBLICATIONS/RECHERCHE/Scientifiques/A-savoir/12-VA-A-Savoir.pdf

Quinonez, J.A., Moers, P. and Galema, T. (2012) ‘Beyond the fuel versus food controversy: the case of Gota Verde in Yoro’, in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 14-16 [pdf] <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversionereportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversionereportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

Schrijver, A. (2012) ‘Same, same, but different: a case study on the impact of biodiesel contracts on family farmers in Bahia’, in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 17-19 [pdf] <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

UNEP (2008) ‘Biofuel group certification: ensuring that smallholders can participate in biofuel markets’, Bioenergy Issues Paper Series 5 [pdf] <www.unep.org/bioenergy/Portals/48107/doc/issues/issuespaper/Issue%20Paper%205.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. www.unep.org/bioenergy/Portals/48107/doc/issues/issuespaper/Issue%20Paper%205.pdf

UNIDROIT (2013) ‘Study LXXX A: preparation of a legal guide on contract farming’ [online] <www.unidroit.org/english/studies/study80a/main.htm≯ [accessed 5 August 2013]. www.unidroit.org/english/studies/study80a/main.htm

Van Eijck, J. (2009) Case Study: The Smallholder Model of Biofuel Production in Tanzania [pdf], GTZ and ProBEC <www.jatropha.pro/PDF%20bestanden/fl06012010085317_Diligent_Case_Study_Mozambique_2009_Vreviewed.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.jatropha.pro/PDF%20bestanden/fl06012010085317_Diligent_Case_Study_Mozambique_2009_Vreviewed.pdf

Villanueva, S.D. (2012) ‘Land deals on biofuels: good or bad for smallholders? A case study on Mindanao, southern Philippines’, in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 27-31 [pdf] <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversionereportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversionereportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

Watanabe, K. and Zylbersztajn, D. (2010) Building Supply-systems from Scratch: The Case of Biodiesel Chain in Brazil [pdf] <www.foodorfuel.org/sites/foodorfuel.org/files/docs/Watanabe_and_Zylbersztajn_WICANEM2010.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. www.foodorfuel.org/sites/foodorfuel.org/files/docs/Watanabe_and_Zylbersztajn_WICANEM2010.pdf

Watanabe, K. and Zylbersztajn, D. (2012) ‘Building supply systems from scratch: the case of the castor bean for biodiesel chain in Minas Gerais, Brazil’, International Journal on Food System Dynamics 3(2): 185-98 [online] <http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/144856/2/Watanabe-Zylbersztajn.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/144856/2/Watanabe-Zylbersztajn.pdf

Will, M. (2013) Contract Farming Handbook [pdf], GIZ <www.giz.de/Themen/de/dokumente/giz2013-en-handbook-contract-farming-manual-low-resolution.pdf≯ [accessed 5 August 2013]. www.giz.de/Themen/de/dokumente/giz2013-en-handbook-contract-farming-manual-low-resolution.pdf

Abramovay, R. and Magalhães, R. (2007) ‘The access of family farmers to biodiesel markets: partnerships between large companies and social movements’ [pdf] London: IIED <http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G03239.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G03239.pdf

African Biodiversity Network (2010) ‘Biofuels - a failure for Africa’, prepared in association with the Ethiopian Society for Consumer Protection and The Gaia Foundation <www.africanbiodiversity.org/sites/default/files/PDFs/Biofuels%20-%20A%20Failure%20for%20Africa%20(ABN,%20Dec%202010).pdf≯ [accessed 10 May 2013]. www.africanbiodiversity.org/sites/default/files/PDFs/Biofuels%20-%20A%20Failure%20for%20Africa%20(ABN,%20Dec%202010).pdf

Andrade, R.M.T. and Miccolis, A. (2011) Policies and Institutional and Legal Frameworks in the Expansion of Brazilian Biofuels, CIFOR <www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP71CIFOR.pdf≯ [accessed 2 July 2013]. www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP71CIFOR.pdf

Ariza-Montobbio, P. and Lele, S. (2010) ‘Jatropha plantations for biodiesel in Tamil Nadu, India: viability, livelihood trade-offs and latent conflict’, Ecological Economics 70 (2): 189-95 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.05.011≯.

Balkema, A.J. and Romijn, H.A. (2011) Innovative Business Models for Sustainable Biofuel Production: The Case of Tanzania Smallholder Jatropha Farmers in the Global Value Chain [pdf], Eindhoven Centre for Innovation Studies <http://cms.tm.tue.nl/Ecis/Files/papers/wp2011/wp1106.pdf≯ [accessed 10 May 2013]. http://cms.tm.tue.nl/Ecis/Files/papers/wp2011/wp1106.pdf

Bastos Lima, M.G. (2011) An Institutional Analysis of Biofuel Policies and their Social Implications in Developing Countries [pdf], Geneva: UNRISD <www.unrisd.org/80256B42004CCC77/(httpInfoFiles)/00303FB7BAB1D319C1257921005030A5/$file/6-4%20Bastos%20Lima.pdf≯ [accessed 2 July 2013]. www.unrisd.org/80256B42004CCC77/(httpInfoFiles)/00303FB7BAB1D319C1257921005030A5/$file/6-4%20Bastos%20Lima.pdf

Beall, E. (ed.) (2012) Smallholders in Global Bioenergy Value Chains and Certification [pdf] Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2597e/i2597e00.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2597e/i2597e00.pdf

Bijman, J., Slingerland, M. and van Baren, S. (2009) ‘Contractual arrangements for smallholders in biofuel chains: a case study of jatropha in Mozambique’, VII International PENSA Conference, São Paulo, Brazil [pdf] <www.foodorfuel.org/sites/foodorfuel.org/files/docs/Bijman_et_al_2009.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.foodorfuel.org/sites/foodorfuel.org/files/docs/Bijman_et_al_2009.pdf

Contract Farming Resource Centre website <www.fao.org/ag/ags/contract-farming/en/≯ [accessed 2 October 2013]. www.fao.org/ag/ags/contract-farming/en/

Da Silva, C.A. (2005) The Growing Role of Contract Farming in Agri-food Systems Development: Drivers, Theory and Practice [pdf] AGS Working Document 9, Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ags/publications/AGSF_WD_9.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ags/publications/AGSF_WD_9.pdf

De Schutter, O. (2011) The Right to Food: Note by the Secretary-General [pdf], UN General Assembly, Doc. A/66/262 <www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Food/A.66.262_en.pdf≯ [accessed 5 August 2013]. www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Food/A.66.262_en.pdf

Eaton, C. and Shepherd, A.W. (2001) Contract Farming: Partnerships for Growth [pdf], Agricultural Services Bulletin 145, Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/docrep/014/y0937e/y0937e00.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. www.fao.org/docrep/014/y0937e/y0937e00.pdf

Elbehri, A., Segerstedt, A. and Liu, P. (2013) Biofuels and the Sustainability Challenge: A Global Assessment of Sustainability Issues, Trends and Policies for Biofuels and Related Feedstocks [pdf] Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/docrep/017/i3126e/i3126e.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.fao.org/docrep/017/i3126e/i3126e.pdf

Ewing, M. and Msangi, S. (2009) ‘Biofuels production in developing countries: assessing tradeoffs in welfare and food security’, Environmental Science & Policy 12: 520-28 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2008.10.002≯.

FAO (2012) Guiding Principles for Responsible Contract Farming Operations [pdf], Rome: AGS Division, FAO <http://makingtheconnection.cta.int/sites/default/files/CF_Brief_web.pdf≯ [accessed 5 August 2013]. http://makingtheconnection.cta.int/sites/default/files/CF_Brief_web.pdf

Feintrenie, L., Chong, W.K. and Levang, P. (2010) ‘Why do farmers prefer oil palm? Lessons learnt from Bungu District, Indonesia’, Small-scale Forestry 9: 379-96 [online] <www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/AFeintrenie1002.pdf≯ [accessed 2 July 2013]. www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/AFeintrenie1002.pdf

Gomes, M. and Glass, V. (2012) ‘New partnerships: promise or poison to small farmers? Palm oil biofuel production in the Amazon’ in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 20-23 <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversionereportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversionereportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

Höllinger, F. (2004) Financing Agricultural Term Investments [pdf], Agricultural Finance Revisited, No. 7, Rome: FAO and GTZ <www.ruralfinance.org/fileadmin/templates/rflc/documents/1116343960230_Afr7_E.pdf≯ [accessed 5 August 2013]. www.ruralfinance.org/fileadmin/templates/rflc/documents/1116343960230_Afr7_E.pdf

Hospes, O. (2012) ‘Conclusions and recommendations’, in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 31-34 [pdf] <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

Khairnur, L. and Hermawansyah (2012) ‘Clearing land, fuelling conflict’, in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 24-26 [pdf] <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

Lee, J.S.H., Rist, L., Obidzinski, K., Ghazoul, J. and Pin Koh, L. (2011) ‘No farmer left behind in sustainable biofuel production’, Biologicial Conservation 144 (10): 2512-16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.07.006≯ [accessed 5 May 2013].

Mabiso, A. (2012) Participation of Smallholder Farmers in Biofuels Crop and Land Rental Markets: Evidence from South Africa [pdf] <http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/126370/2/Mabiso_a_2011_paper_1633_abstract_10435_0%5B1%5D.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/126370/2/Mabiso_a_2011_paper_1633_abstract_10435_0%5B1%5D.pdf

Moges, K.T. (2010) Smallholder Farmers and Biofuel: Farmers’ Perspectives in Growing Castor Beans in Ethiopia [pdf], Master's Thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences <http://stud.epsilon.slu.se/2327/1/moges_k_t_110303.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. http://stud.epsilon.slu.se/2327/1/moges_k_t_110303.pdf

Montefrio, M.J.F. and Sonnenfeld, D.A. (2013) ‘Global-local tensions in contract farming of biofuel crops involving indigenous communities in the Philippines’, Society and Natural Resources 26(3): 239-53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2012.682114≯.

Narayanan, S. (forthcoming) ‘Geography matters: evidence and implications of spatial selection in contract farming schemes in southern India’, in C. da Silva, R. Christy and N. Mhlanga (eds.), Innovative Institutions, Public Policies, and Private Strategies for Agro-Enterprise Development, Scientific Publishers, UK.

Oyuela, D., Erazo, D. and Hernandez, E. (2012) ‘Energy crops, partnerships and new opportunities: experiences in the southern part of Honduras’, in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 10-13 [pdf] <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

Prowse, M. (2012) Contract Farming in Developing Countries: A Review [pdf], AFD <www.afd.fr/webdav/site/afd/shared/PUBLICATIONS/RECHERCHE/Scientifiques/A-savoir/12-VA-A-Savoir.pdf≯ [accessed 5 August 2013]. www.afd.fr/webdav/site/afd/shared/PUBLICATIONS/RECHERCHE/Scientifiques/A-savoir/12-VA-A-Savoir.pdf

Quinonez, J.A., Moers, P. and Galema, T. (2012) ‘Beyond the fuel versus food controversy: the case of Gota Verde in Yoro’, in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 14-16 [pdf] <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversionereportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversionereportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

Schrijver, A. (2012) ‘Same, same, but different: a case study on the impact of biodiesel contracts on family farmers in Bahia’, in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 17-19 [pdf] <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

UNEP (2008) ‘Biofuel group certification: ensuring that smallholders can participate in biofuel markets’, Bioenergy Issues Paper Series 5 [pdf] <www.unep.org/bioenergy/Portals/48107/doc/issues/issuespaper/Issue%20Paper%205.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. www.unep.org/bioenergy/Portals/48107/doc/issues/issuespaper/Issue%20Paper%205.pdf

UNIDROIT (2013) ‘Study LXXX A: preparation of a legal guide on contract farming’ [online] <www.unidroit.org/english/studies/study80a/main.htm≯ [accessed 5 August 2013]. www.unidroit.org/english/studies/study80a/main.htm

Van Eijck, J. (2009) Case Study: The Smallholder Model of Biofuel Production in Tanzania [pdf], GTZ and ProBEC <www.jatropha.pro/PDF%20bestanden/fl06012010085317_Diligent_Case_Study_Mozambique_2009_Vreviewed.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.jatropha.pro/PDF%20bestanden/fl06012010085317_Diligent_Case_Study_Mozambique_2009_Vreviewed.pdf

Villanueva, S.D. (2012) ‘Land deals on biofuels: good or bad for smallholders? A case study on Mindanao, southern Philippines’, in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 27-31 [pdf] <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversionereportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversionereportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

Watanabe, K. and Zylbersztajn, D. (2010) Building Supply-systems from Scratch: The Case of Biodiesel Chain in Brazil [pdf] <www.foodorfuel.org/sites/foodorfuel.org/files/docs/Watanabe_and_Zylbersztajn_WICANEM2010.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. www.foodorfuel.org/sites/foodorfuel.org/files/docs/Watanabe_and_Zylbersztajn_WICANEM2010.pdf

Watanabe, K. and Zylbersztajn, D. (2012) ‘Building supply systems from scratch: the case of the castor bean for biodiesel chain in Minas Gerais, Brazil’, International Journal on Food System Dynamics 3(2): 185-98 [online] <http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/144856/2/Watanabe-Zylbersztajn.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/144856/2/Watanabe-Zylbersztajn.pdf

Will, M. (2013) Contract Farming Handbook [pdf], GIZ <www.giz.de/Themen/de/dokumente/giz2013-en-handbook-contract-farming-manual-low-resolution.pdf≯ [accessed 5 August 2013]. www.giz.de/Themen/de/dokumente/giz2013-en-handbook-contract-farming-manual-low-resolution.pdf

Abramovay, R. and Magalhães, R. (2007) ‘The access of family farmers to biodiesel markets: partnerships between large companies and social movements’ [pdf] London: IIED <http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G03239.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G03239.pdf

African Biodiversity Network (2010) ‘Biofuels - a failure for Africa’, prepared in association with the Ethiopian Society for Consumer Protection and The Gaia Foundation <www.africanbiodiversity.org/sites/default/files/PDFs/Biofuels%20-%20A%20Failure%20for%20Africa%20(ABN,%20Dec%202010).pdf≯ [accessed 10 May 2013]. www.africanbiodiversity.org/sites/default/files/PDFs/Biofuels%20-%20A%20Failure%20for%20Africa%20(ABN,%20Dec%202010).pdf

Andrade, R.M.T. and Miccolis, A. (2011) Policies and Institutional and Legal Frameworks in the Expansion of Brazilian Biofuels, CIFOR <www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP71CIFOR.pdf≯ [accessed 2 July 2013]. www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP71CIFOR.pdf

Ariza-Montobbio, P. and Lele, S. (2010) ‘Jatropha plantations for biodiesel in Tamil Nadu, India: viability, livelihood trade-offs and latent conflict’, Ecological Economics 70 (2): 189-95 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.05.011≯.

Balkema, A.J. and Romijn, H.A. (2011) Innovative Business Models for Sustainable Biofuel Production: The Case of Tanzania Smallholder Jatropha Farmers in the Global Value Chain [pdf], Eindhoven Centre for Innovation Studies <http://cms.tm.tue.nl/Ecis/Files/papers/wp2011/wp1106.pdf≯ [accessed 10 May 2013]. http://cms.tm.tue.nl/Ecis/Files/papers/wp2011/wp1106.pdf

Bastos Lima, M.G. (2011) An Institutional Analysis of Biofuel Policies and their Social Implications in Developing Countries [pdf], Geneva: UNRISD <www.unrisd.org/80256B42004CCC77/(httpInfoFiles)/00303FB7BAB1D319C1257921005030A5/$file/6-4%20Bastos%20Lima.pdf≯ [accessed 2 July 2013]. www.unrisd.org/80256B42004CCC77/(httpInfoFiles)/00303FB7BAB1D319C1257921005030A5/$file/6-4%20Bastos%20Lima.pdf

Beall, E. (ed.) (2012) Smallholders in Global Bioenergy Value Chains and Certification [pdf] Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2597e/i2597e00.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2597e/i2597e00.pdf

Bijman, J., Slingerland, M. and van Baren, S. (2009) ‘Contractual arrangements for smallholders in biofuel chains: a case study of jatropha in Mozambique’, VII International PENSA Conference, São Paulo, Brazil [pdf] <www.foodorfuel.org/sites/foodorfuel.org/files/docs/Bijman_et_al_2009.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.foodorfuel.org/sites/foodorfuel.org/files/docs/Bijman_et_al_2009.pdf

Contract Farming Resource Centre website <www.fao.org/ag/ags/contract-farming/en/≯ [accessed 2 October 2013]. www.fao.org/ag/ags/contract-farming/en/

Da Silva, C.A. (2005) The Growing Role of Contract Farming in Agri-food Systems Development: Drivers, Theory and Practice [pdf] AGS Working Document 9, Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ags/publications/AGSF_WD_9.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ags/publications/AGSF_WD_9.pdf

De Schutter, O. (2011) The Right to Food: Note by the Secretary-General [pdf], UN General Assembly, Doc. A/66/262 <www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Food/A.66.262_en.pdf≯ [accessed 5 August 2013]. www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Food/A.66.262_en.pdf

Eaton, C. and Shepherd, A.W. (2001) Contract Farming: Partnerships for Growth [pdf], Agricultural Services Bulletin 145, Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/docrep/014/y0937e/y0937e00.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. www.fao.org/docrep/014/y0937e/y0937e00.pdf

Elbehri, A., Segerstedt, A. and Liu, P. (2013) Biofuels and the Sustainability Challenge: A Global Assessment of Sustainability Issues, Trends and Policies for Biofuels and Related Feedstocks [pdf] Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/docrep/017/i3126e/i3126e.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.fao.org/docrep/017/i3126e/i3126e.pdf

Ewing, M. and Msangi, S. (2009) ‘Biofuels production in developing countries: assessing tradeoffs in welfare and food security’, Environmental Science & Policy 12: 520-28 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2008.10.002≯.

FAO (2012) Guiding Principles for Responsible Contract Farming Operations [pdf], Rome: AGS Division, FAO <http://makingtheconnection.cta.int/sites/default/files/CF_Brief_web.pdf≯ [accessed 5 August 2013]. http://makingtheconnection.cta.int/sites/default/files/CF_Brief_web.pdf

Feintrenie, L., Chong, W.K. and Levang, P. (2010) ‘Why do farmers prefer oil palm? Lessons learnt from Bungu District, Indonesia’, Small-scale Forestry 9: 379-96 [online] <www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/AFeintrenie1002.pdf≯ [accessed 2 July 2013]. www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/articles/AFeintrenie1002.pdf

Gomes, M. and Glass, V. (2012) ‘New partnerships: promise or poison to small farmers? Palm oil biofuel production in the Amazon’ in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 20-23 <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversionereportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversionereportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

Höllinger, F. (2004) Financing Agricultural Term Investments [pdf], Agricultural Finance Revisited, No. 7, Rome: FAO and GTZ <www.ruralfinance.org/fileadmin/templates/rflc/documents/1116343960230_Afr7_E.pdf≯ [accessed 5 August 2013]. www.ruralfinance.org/fileadmin/templates/rflc/documents/1116343960230_Afr7_E.pdf

Hospes, O. (2012) ‘Conclusions and recommendations’, in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 31-34 [pdf] <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

Khairnur, L. and Hermawansyah (2012) ‘Clearing land, fuelling conflict’, in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 24-26 [pdf] <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

Lee, J.S.H., Rist, L., Obidzinski, K., Ghazoul, J. and Pin Koh, L. (2011) ‘No farmer left behind in sustainable biofuel production’, Biologicial Conservation 144 (10): 2512-16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.07.006≯ [accessed 5 May 2013].

Mabiso, A. (2012) Participation of Smallholder Farmers in Biofuels Crop and Land Rental Markets: Evidence from South Africa [pdf] <http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/126370/2/Mabiso_a_2011_paper_1633_abstract_10435_0%5B1%5D.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/126370/2/Mabiso_a_2011_paper_1633_abstract_10435_0%5B1%5D.pdf

Moges, K.T. (2010) Smallholder Farmers and Biofuel: Farmers’ Perspectives in Growing Castor Beans in Ethiopia [pdf], Master's Thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences <http://stud.epsilon.slu.se/2327/1/moges_k_t_110303.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. http://stud.epsilon.slu.se/2327/1/moges_k_t_110303.pdf

Montefrio, M.J.F. and Sonnenfeld, D.A. (2013) ‘Global-local tensions in contract farming of biofuel crops involving indigenous communities in the Philippines’, Society and Natural Resources 26(3): 239-53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2012.682114≯.

Narayanan, S. (forthcoming) ‘Geography matters: evidence and implications of spatial selection in contract farming schemes in southern India’, in C. da Silva, R. Christy and N. Mhlanga (eds.), Innovative Institutions, Public Policies, and Private Strategies for Agro-Enterprise Development, Scientific Publishers, UK.

Oyuela, D., Erazo, D. and Hernandez, E. (2012) ‘Energy crops, partnerships and new opportunities: experiences in the southern part of Honduras’, in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 10-13 [pdf] <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

Prowse, M. (2012) Contract Farming in Developing Countries: A Review [pdf], AFD <www.afd.fr/webdav/site/afd/shared/PUBLICATIONS/RECHERCHE/Scientifiques/A-savoir/12-VA-A-Savoir.pdf≯ [accessed 5 August 2013]. www.afd.fr/webdav/site/afd/shared/PUBLICATIONS/RECHERCHE/Scientifiques/A-savoir/12-VA-A-Savoir.pdf

Quinonez, J.A., Moers, P. and Galema, T. (2012) ‘Beyond the fuel versus food controversy: the case of Gota Verde in Yoro’, in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 14-16 [pdf] <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversionereportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversionereportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

Schrijver, A. (2012) ‘Same, same, but different: a case study on the impact of biodiesel contracts on family farmers in Bahia’, in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 17-19 [pdf] <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversione-reportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

UNEP (2008) ‘Biofuel group certification: ensuring that smallholders can participate in biofuel markets’, Bioenergy Issues Paper Series 5 [pdf] <www.unep.org/bioenergy/Portals/48107/doc/issues/issuespaper/Issue%20Paper%205.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. www.unep.org/bioenergy/Portals/48107/doc/issues/issuespaper/Issue%20Paper%205.pdf

UNIDROIT (2013) ‘Study LXXX A: preparation of a legal guide on contract farming’ [online] <www.unidroit.org/english/studies/study80a/main.htm≯ [accessed 5 August 2013]. www.unidroit.org/english/studies/study80a/main.htm

Van Eijck, J. (2009) Case Study: The Smallholder Model of Biofuel Production in Tanzania [pdf], GTZ and ProBEC <www.jatropha.pro/PDF%20bestanden/fl06012010085317_Diligent_Case_Study_Mozambique_2009_Vreviewed.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.jatropha.pro/PDF%20bestanden/fl06012010085317_Diligent_Case_Study_Mozambique_2009_Vreviewed.pdf

Villanueva, S.D. (2012) ‘Land deals on biofuels: good or bad for smallholders? A case study on Mindanao, southern Philippines’, in Biofuel Partnerships: From Battleground to Common Ground? pp. 27-31 [pdf] <www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversionereportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf≯ [accessed 5 May 2013]. www.forestpeoples.org/sites/fpp/files/publication/2012/03/finalversionereportbiofuelsworskhopcordaid.pdf

Watanabe, K. and Zylbersztajn, D. (2010) Building Supply-systems from Scratch: The Case of Biodiesel Chain in Brazil [pdf] <www.foodorfuel.org/sites/foodorfuel.org/files/docs/Watanabe_and_Zylbersztajn_WICANEM2010.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. www.foodorfuel.org/sites/foodorfuel.org/files/docs/Watanabe_and_Zylbersztajn_WICANEM2010.pdf

Watanabe, K. and Zylbersztajn, D. (2012) ‘Building supply systems from scratch: the case of the castor bean for biodiesel chain in Minas Gerais, Brazil’, International Journal on Food System Dynamics 3(2): 185-98 [online] <http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/144856/2/Watanabe-Zylbersztajn.pdf≯ [accessed 16 June 2013]. http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/144856/2/Watanabe-Zylbersztajn.pdf

Will, M. (2013) Contract Farming Handbook [pdf], GIZ <www.giz.de/Themen/de/dokumente/giz2013-en-handbook-contract-farming-manual-low-resolution.pdf≯ [accessed 5 August 2013]. www.giz.de/Themen/de/dokumente/giz2013-en-handbook-contract-farming-manual-low-resolution.pdf