Biofortification is an umbrella term for a diverse range of projects and possibilities. It is best understood on three levels: as a range of technologies for developing micronutrient-dense crops; a development intervention to improve public health; and an idea that links agriculture, nutrition, and health in a particular way. This paper focuses on the Golden Rice project as a well-known example of biofortification. It show how two sets of questions – concerning effectiveness of Golden Rice as a delivery mechanism for vitamin A to malnourished populations and its acceptance by those populations as a rice variety and staple food item – have been narrowed down to parameters set by an increasingly polarized GM crop debate. It is not too late for these trends to be reversed, however. The Golden Rice project is a case study in the non-linearity of complex innovation processes, which exposes limitations of binaries such as ‘upstream’ and ‘downstream’. Recent developments point to the possibility of a more open debate about outstanding uncertainties and how they might be resolved.

Al-Babili, S. and Beyer, P. (2005) ‘Golden Rice - five years on the road - five years to go?’ Trends in Plant Science 10: 565-73 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2005.10.006<.

Asia Rice Foundation (2004) Rice in the Seven Arts, Los Baños, Philippines: Asia Rice Foundation.

BIOTHAI, CEDAC (Cambodia), DRCSC (India), GRAIN, MASIPAG (Philippines), PAN-Indonesia and UBINIG (Bangladesh) (2001) Grains of Delusion: Golden Rice Seen from the Ground, Los Banos, Philippines: MASIPAG.

Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) (2003) ‘Grand Challenge #9: engineering rice for high beta carotene, vitamin E and enhanced Fe and Zn bioavailability’ [online], ≯www.grandchallenges.org/ImproveNutrition/Challenges/NutrientRichPlants/Pages/Rice.aspx#ResearchObjectives< [accessed 14 March 2013]. www.grandchallenges.org/ImproveNutrition/Challenges/NutrientRichPlants/Pages/Rice.aspx#ResearchObjectives

Brooks, S. (2010) Rice Biofortification: Lessons for Global Science and Development, London: Earthscan.

Brooks, S. (2011a) ‘Golden Rice: a golden opportunity?’ [online], Brighton: STEPS Centre ≯http://stepscentre-thecrossing.blogspot.co.uk/2011/04/golden-rice-golden-opportunity.html< [accessed 14 March 2013]. http://stepscentre-thecrossing.blogspot.co.uk/2011/04/golden-rice-golden-opportunity.html

Brooks, S. (2011b) ‘Is international agricultural research a global public good? The case of rice biofortification’, Journal of Peasant Studies 38: 67-80 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2010.538581<.

Brooks, S. (2011c) ‘Living with materiality or confronting Asian diversity? The case of iron-biofortified rice research in the Philippines’, East Asian Science, Technology and Society (EASTS) 5: 173-88 ≯http://easts.dukejournals.org/content/5/2/173.short<.

Brooks, S. and Johnson-Beebout, S.E. (2012) ‘Contestation as continuity? Biofortification and the CGIAR’, in J. Sumberg and J. Thompson (eds), Contested Agronomies: Agricultural Research in a Changing World, London: Routledge.

Brooks, S., Burges-Watson, D., Draper, A., Goodman, M., Kvalvaag, H. and Wills, W. (2013) ‘Chewing on choice’, in E.J. Abbots and A. Lavis (eds), Why We Eat, How We Eat: Contemporary Encounters between Food and Bodies, London: Ashgate.

Cakmak, I. (2008) ‘Enrichment of cereal grains with zinc: agronomic or genetic biofortification?’ Plant Soil 302: 1-17 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11104-007-9466-3<.

Castillo, G.T. (2006) Rice in Our Life: A Review of Philippine Studies, Manila, Philippines: Angelo King Institute, De La Salle University and Philippine Rice Research Institute.

CIAT and IFPRI (2002) ‘Biofortified crops for improved human nutrition: a challenge program proposal presented by CIAT and IFPRI’, to the CGIAR Science Council, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute; Cali, Colombia: International Centre for Tropical Agriculture.

De Groote, H., Gunaratna, N., Ergano, K. and Friesen, D. (2010) ‘Extension and adoption of biofortified crops: quality protein maize in East Africa’, Joint 3rd African Association of Agricultural Economists (AAAE) and 48th Agricultural Economists Association of South Africa (AEASA) Conference, Cape Town, South Africa, September 19-23.

FAO (2003) The International Year of Rice 2004: Concept Paper, Rome: International Year of Rice Secrerariat, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations.

Florentino, R.F. and Pedro, M.R.A. (2006) Update on Rice Fortification in the Philippines [online], Bicutan, Taguig City, Philippines: Food and Nutrition Research Institute, Department of Science and Technology (DOST) ≯www.unu.edu/unupress/food/V192e/ch09.htm< [accessed 17 May 2013]. www.unu.edu/unupress/food/V192e/ch09.htm

GM Watch (2012) ‘Golden Rice “could save a million kids a year”’ [online], Norwich, UK: GM Watch ≯http://gmwatch.org/gm-myths/11130< [accessed 14 March 2013]. http://gmwatch.org/gm-myths/11130

Hagenimama, V., Low, J., Anyango, M., Kurz, K.M., Gichuki, S.T. and Kabira, J. (2001) ‘Enhancing vitamin A intake in young children in Western Kenya: orange-fleshed sweet potato can serve as key entry points’, Food and Nutrition Bulletin: Special Issue on Long-Term Food-Based Approaches Towards Eliminating Vitamin A Deficiency in Africa 22: 376-87.

Haggblade, S., Longabaugh, S. and Tschirley, D. (2009) ‘Spatial patterns of food staple production and marketing in South East Africa: implications for trade policy and emergency response’, MSU International Development Working Paper No. 100, East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University.

HarvestPlus (2004) Breeding Crops for Better Nutrition: Harnessing Agricultural Technology to Improve Micronutrient Deficiencies, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.

HarvestPlus (2012) Disseminating Orange-Fleshed Sweet Potato: Findings from a HarvestPlus project in Mozambique and Uganda, Washington, DC: HarvestPlus.

Hellin, J. and Erenstein, O. (2009) ‘Maize-poultry value chains in India: implications for research and development’, Journal of New Seeds 10: 245-63 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15228860903303932<.

IRRI (2013) ‘Clarifying recent news about Golden Rice’ [online], Manila: International Rice Research Institute ≯www.irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=12483< [accessed 14 March 2013]. www.irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=12483

Johns, T. and Sthapit, B.R. (2004) ‘Biocultural diversity in the sustainability of developing-country food systems’, Food and Nutrition Bulletin 25(2):143-55.

Latham, M. (2010) ‘The great vitamin A fiasco’, World Nutrition 1: 12-45 ≯www.wphna.org/wn_commentary.asp< [accessed 11 April 2013]. www.wphna.org/wn_commentary.asp

Low, J.W., Arimond, M., Osman, N., Cunguara, B., Zano, F. and Tschirley, D. (2007) ‘A food-based approach introducing orange-fleshed sweet potatoes increased vitamin A intake and serum retinol concentrations in young children in rural Mozambique’, Journal of Nutrition 137: 1320-27 ≯http://jn.nutrition.org/content/137/5/1320.short< [accessed 11 April 2013].

McVie, R. (2013) ‘After 30 years, is a GM food breakthrough finally here?’ The Observer, 2 February.

Meenakshi, J.V., Johnson, N.L., Manyong, V.M., DeGroote, H., Javelosa, J., Yanggen, D.R., Naher, F., Gonzalez, C., Garcia, J. and Meng, E. (2010) ‘How cost-effective is biofortification in combating micronutrient malnutrition? An ex ante assessment’, World Development 38: 64-75 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.03.014<.

Mertz, E.T. (1997) ‘Thirty years of opaque2 maize’, in B.A. Larkins and E.T. Mertz (eds), Quality Protein Maize: 1964-1994, West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press.

Nash, M. (2001) ‘Grains of hope’, Time Magazine, Monday 5 February 2001: 38-46.

Nayar, A. (2011) ‘Grants aim to fight malnutrition’, Nature News [online], 14 April 2011 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/news.2011.233<.

Nestel, P., Bouis, H.E., Meenakshi, J.V. and Pfeiffer, W. (2006) ‘Biofortification of staple food crops’, Journal of Nutrition 136: 1064-67.

Nestle, M. (2001) ‘Article: genetically engineered “Golden Rice” is unlikely to overcome vitamin A deficiency; response by Ingo Potrykus’, Journal of the American Diabetic Association 101: 289-90; Debate 2001.

Normile, D. (1999) ‘Rice biotechnology: Rockerfeller to end network after 15 years of success’, Science 286: 1468-69.

PhilRice (2003) ‘NE farmers see no risk in Golden Rice’, PhilRice Newsletter 16: 21.

PhilRice (2013) ‘Two seasons of Golden Rice trials in Phl concluded’ [online], Neuva Ecija: Philippines Rice Research Institute ≯www.philrice.gov.ph/?page=resources&page2=news&id=211< [accessed 14 March 2013]. www.philrice.gov.ph/?page=resources&page2=news&id=211

Pollan, M. (2001) ‘The great yellow hype’, The New York Times Magazine, 4 March.

Potrykus, I. (2001) ‘Golden Rice and beyond’, Plant Physiology 125: 1157-61 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1104/pp.125.3.1157<.

Potrykus, I. (2010a) ‘Lessons from the humanitarian Golden Rice project: regulation prevents development of public good genetically engineered crop products’, New Biotechnology 27: 466-72 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nbt.2010.07.012<.

Potrykus, I. (2010b) ‘Regulation must be revolutionized’, Nature 466: 561 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/466561a<.

Potrykus, I. (2012) ‘Golden Rice, a GMO-product for public good, and the consequences of GE-regulation’, Journal of Plant Biochemistry and Biotechnology 21: 68-75 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13562-012-0130-5<.

Tang, G., Hu, Y., Yin, S., Wang, Y., Dallal, G.E., Grusak, M.A. and Russell, R.M. (2012) ‘Beta-carotene in Golden Rice is as good as beta-carotene in oil at providing vitamin A to children’, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 96: 658-64 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.111.030775<.

Taverne, R. (2007) ‘The real GM food scandal’, Prospect 140: 24-27 ≯www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/therealgmfoodscandal/< [accessed 11 April 2013]. www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/therealgmfoodscandal/

Al-Babili, S. and Beyer, P. (2005) ‘Golden Rice - five years on the road - five years to go?’ Trends in Plant Science 10: 565-73 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2005.10.006<.

Asia Rice Foundation (2004) Rice in the Seven Arts, Los Baños, Philippines: Asia Rice Foundation.

BIOTHAI, CEDAC (Cambodia), DRCSC (India), GRAIN, MASIPAG (Philippines), PAN-Indonesia and UBINIG (Bangladesh) (2001) Grains of Delusion: Golden Rice Seen from the Ground, Los Banos, Philippines: MASIPAG.

Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) (2003) ‘Grand Challenge #9: engineering rice for high beta carotene, vitamin E and enhanced Fe and Zn bioavailability’ [online], ≯www.grandchallenges.org/ImproveNutrition/Challenges/NutrientRichPlants/Pages/Rice.aspx#ResearchObjectives< [accessed 14 March 2013]. www.grandchallenges.org/ImproveNutrition/Challenges/NutrientRichPlants/Pages/Rice.aspx#ResearchObjectives

Brooks, S. (2010) Rice Biofortification: Lessons for Global Science and Development, London: Earthscan.

Brooks, S. (2011a) ‘Golden Rice: a golden opportunity?’ [online], Brighton: STEPS Centre ≯http://stepscentre-thecrossing.blogspot.co.uk/2011/04/golden-rice-golden-opportunity.html< [accessed 14 March 2013]. http://stepscentre-thecrossing.blogspot.co.uk/2011/04/golden-rice-golden-opportunity.html

Brooks, S. (2011b) ‘Is international agricultural research a global public good? The case of rice biofortification’, Journal of Peasant Studies 38: 67-80 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2010.538581<.

Brooks, S. (2011c) ‘Living with materiality or confronting Asian diversity? The case of iron-biofortified rice research in the Philippines’, East Asian Science, Technology and Society (EASTS) 5: 173-88 ≯http://easts.dukejournals.org/content/5/2/173.short<.

Brooks, S. and Johnson-Beebout, S.E. (2012) ‘Contestation as continuity? Biofortification and the CGIAR’, in J. Sumberg and J. Thompson (eds), Contested Agronomies: Agricultural Research in a Changing World, London: Routledge.

Brooks, S., Burges-Watson, D., Draper, A., Goodman, M., Kvalvaag, H. and Wills, W. (2013) ‘Chewing on choice’, in E.J. Abbots and A. Lavis (eds), Why We Eat, How We Eat: Contemporary Encounters between Food and Bodies, London: Ashgate.

Cakmak, I. (2008) ‘Enrichment of cereal grains with zinc: agronomic or genetic biofortification?’ Plant Soil 302: 1-17 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11104-007-9466-3<.

Castillo, G.T. (2006) Rice in Our Life: A Review of Philippine Studies, Manila, Philippines: Angelo King Institute, De La Salle University and Philippine Rice Research Institute.

CIAT and IFPRI (2002) ‘Biofortified crops for improved human nutrition: a challenge program proposal presented by CIAT and IFPRI’, to the CGIAR Science Council, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute; Cali, Colombia: International Centre for Tropical Agriculture.

De Groote, H., Gunaratna, N., Ergano, K. and Friesen, D. (2010) ‘Extension and adoption of biofortified crops: quality protein maize in East Africa’, Joint 3rd African Association of Agricultural Economists (AAAE) and 48th Agricultural Economists Association of South Africa (AEASA) Conference, Cape Town, South Africa, September 19-23.

FAO (2003) The International Year of Rice 2004: Concept Paper, Rome: International Year of Rice Secrerariat, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations.

Florentino, R.F. and Pedro, M.R.A. (2006) Update on Rice Fortification in the Philippines [online], Bicutan, Taguig City, Philippines: Food and Nutrition Research Institute, Department of Science and Technology (DOST) ≯www.unu.edu/unupress/food/V192e/ch09.htm< [accessed 17 May 2013]. www.unu.edu/unupress/food/V192e/ch09.htm

GM Watch (2012) ‘Golden Rice “could save a million kids a year”’ [online], Norwich, UK: GM Watch ≯http://gmwatch.org/gm-myths/11130< [accessed 14 March 2013]. http://gmwatch.org/gm-myths/11130

Hagenimama, V., Low, J., Anyango, M., Kurz, K.M., Gichuki, S.T. and Kabira, J. (2001) ‘Enhancing vitamin A intake in young children in Western Kenya: orange-fleshed sweet potato can serve as key entry points’, Food and Nutrition Bulletin: Special Issue on Long-Term Food-Based Approaches Towards Eliminating Vitamin A Deficiency in Africa 22: 376-87.

Haggblade, S., Longabaugh, S. and Tschirley, D. (2009) ‘Spatial patterns of food staple production and marketing in South East Africa: implications for trade policy and emergency response’, MSU International Development Working Paper No. 100, East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University.

HarvestPlus (2004) Breeding Crops for Better Nutrition: Harnessing Agricultural Technology to Improve Micronutrient Deficiencies, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.

HarvestPlus (2012) Disseminating Orange-Fleshed Sweet Potato: Findings from a HarvestPlus project in Mozambique and Uganda, Washington, DC: HarvestPlus.

Hellin, J. and Erenstein, O. (2009) ‘Maize-poultry value chains in India: implications for research and development’, Journal of New Seeds 10: 245-63 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15228860903303932<.

IRRI (2013) ‘Clarifying recent news about Golden Rice’ [online], Manila: International Rice Research Institute ≯www.irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=12483< [accessed 14 March 2013]. www.irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=12483

Johns, T. and Sthapit, B.R. (2004) ‘Biocultural diversity in the sustainability of developing-country food systems’, Food and Nutrition Bulletin 25(2):143-55.

Latham, M. (2010) ‘The great vitamin A fiasco’, World Nutrition 1: 12-45 ≯www.wphna.org/wn_commentary.asp< [accessed 11 April 2013]. www.wphna.org/wn_commentary.asp

Low, J.W., Arimond, M., Osman, N., Cunguara, B., Zano, F. and Tschirley, D. (2007) ‘A food-based approach introducing orange-fleshed sweet potatoes increased vitamin A intake and serum retinol concentrations in young children in rural Mozambique’, Journal of Nutrition 137: 1320-27 ≯http://jn.nutrition.org/content/137/5/1320.short< [accessed 11 April 2013].

McVie, R. (2013) ‘After 30 years, is a GM food breakthrough finally here?’ The Observer, 2 February.

Meenakshi, J.V., Johnson, N.L., Manyong, V.M., DeGroote, H., Javelosa, J., Yanggen, D.R., Naher, F., Gonzalez, C., Garcia, J. and Meng, E. (2010) ‘How cost-effective is biofortification in combating micronutrient malnutrition? An ex ante assessment’, World Development 38: 64-75 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.03.014<.

Mertz, E.T. (1997) ‘Thirty years of opaque2 maize’, in B.A. Larkins and E.T. Mertz (eds), Quality Protein Maize: 1964-1994, West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press.

Nash, M. (2001) ‘Grains of hope’, Time Magazine, Monday 5 February 2001: 38-46.

Nayar, A. (2011) ‘Grants aim to fight malnutrition’, Nature News [online], 14 April 2011 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/news.2011.233<.

Nestel, P., Bouis, H.E., Meenakshi, J.V. and Pfeiffer, W. (2006) ‘Biofortification of staple food crops’, Journal of Nutrition 136: 1064-67.

Nestle, M. (2001) ‘Article: genetically engineered “Golden Rice” is unlikely to overcome vitamin A deficiency; response by Ingo Potrykus’, Journal of the American Diabetic Association 101: 289-90; Debate 2001.

Normile, D. (1999) ‘Rice biotechnology: Rockerfeller to end network after 15 years of success’, Science 286: 1468-69.

PhilRice (2003) ‘NE farmers see no risk in Golden Rice’, PhilRice Newsletter 16: 21.

PhilRice (2013) ‘Two seasons of Golden Rice trials in Phl concluded’ [online], Neuva Ecija: Philippines Rice Research Institute ≯www.philrice.gov.ph/?page=resources&page2=news&id=211< [accessed 14 March 2013]. www.philrice.gov.ph/?page=resources&page2=news&id=211

Pollan, M. (2001) ‘The great yellow hype’, The New York Times Magazine, 4 March.

Potrykus, I. (2001) ‘Golden Rice and beyond’, Plant Physiology 125: 1157-61 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1104/pp.125.3.1157<.

Potrykus, I. (2010a) ‘Lessons from the humanitarian Golden Rice project: regulation prevents development of public good genetically engineered crop products’, New Biotechnology 27: 466-72 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nbt.2010.07.012<.

Potrykus, I. (2010b) ‘Regulation must be revolutionized’, Nature 466: 561 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/466561a<.

Potrykus, I. (2012) ‘Golden Rice, a GMO-product for public good, and the consequences of GE-regulation’, Journal of Plant Biochemistry and Biotechnology 21: 68-75 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13562-012-0130-5<.

Tang, G., Hu, Y., Yin, S., Wang, Y., Dallal, G.E., Grusak, M.A. and Russell, R.M. (2012) ‘Beta-carotene in Golden Rice is as good as beta-carotene in oil at providing vitamin A to children’, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 96: 658-64 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.111.030775<.

Taverne, R. (2007) ‘The real GM food scandal’, Prospect 140: 24-27 ≯www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/therealgmfoodscandal/< [accessed 11 April 2013]. www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/therealgmfoodscandal/

Al-Babili, S. and Beyer, P. (2005) ‘Golden Rice - five years on the road - five years to go?’ Trends in Plant Science 10: 565-73 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2005.10.006<.

Asia Rice Foundation (2004) Rice in the Seven Arts, Los Baños, Philippines: Asia Rice Foundation.

BIOTHAI, CEDAC (Cambodia), DRCSC (India), GRAIN, MASIPAG (Philippines), PAN-Indonesia and UBINIG (Bangladesh) (2001) Grains of Delusion: Golden Rice Seen from the Ground, Los Banos, Philippines: MASIPAG.

Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) (2003) ‘Grand Challenge #9: engineering rice for high beta carotene, vitamin E and enhanced Fe and Zn bioavailability’ [online], ≯www.grandchallenges.org/ImproveNutrition/Challenges/NutrientRichPlants/Pages/Rice.aspx#ResearchObjectives< [accessed 14 March 2013]. www.grandchallenges.org/ImproveNutrition/Challenges/NutrientRichPlants/Pages/Rice.aspx#ResearchObjectives

Brooks, S. (2010) Rice Biofortification: Lessons for Global Science and Development, London: Earthscan.

Brooks, S. (2011a) ‘Golden Rice: a golden opportunity?’ [online], Brighton: STEPS Centre ≯http://stepscentre-thecrossing.blogspot.co.uk/2011/04/golden-rice-golden-opportunity.html< [accessed 14 March 2013]. http://stepscentre-thecrossing.blogspot.co.uk/2011/04/golden-rice-golden-opportunity.html

Brooks, S. (2011b) ‘Is international agricultural research a global public good? The case of rice biofortification’, Journal of Peasant Studies 38: 67-80 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2010.538581<.

Brooks, S. (2011c) ‘Living with materiality or confronting Asian diversity? The case of iron-biofortified rice research in the Philippines’, East Asian Science, Technology and Society (EASTS) 5: 173-88 ≯http://easts.dukejournals.org/content/5/2/173.short<.

Brooks, S. and Johnson-Beebout, S.E. (2012) ‘Contestation as continuity? Biofortification and the CGIAR’, in J. Sumberg and J. Thompson (eds), Contested Agronomies: Agricultural Research in a Changing World, London: Routledge.

Brooks, S., Burges-Watson, D., Draper, A., Goodman, M., Kvalvaag, H. and Wills, W. (2013) ‘Chewing on choice’, in E.J. Abbots and A. Lavis (eds), Why We Eat, How We Eat: Contemporary Encounters between Food and Bodies, London: Ashgate.

Cakmak, I. (2008) ‘Enrichment of cereal grains with zinc: agronomic or genetic biofortification?’ Plant Soil 302: 1-17 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11104-007-9466-3<.

Castillo, G.T. (2006) Rice in Our Life: A Review of Philippine Studies, Manila, Philippines: Angelo King Institute, De La Salle University and Philippine Rice Research Institute.

CIAT and IFPRI (2002) ‘Biofortified crops for improved human nutrition: a challenge program proposal presented by CIAT and IFPRI’, to the CGIAR Science Council, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute; Cali, Colombia: International Centre for Tropical Agriculture.

De Groote, H., Gunaratna, N., Ergano, K. and Friesen, D. (2010) ‘Extension and adoption of biofortified crops: quality protein maize in East Africa’, Joint 3rd African Association of Agricultural Economists (AAAE) and 48th Agricultural Economists Association of South Africa (AEASA) Conference, Cape Town, South Africa, September 19-23.

FAO (2003) The International Year of Rice 2004: Concept Paper, Rome: International Year of Rice Secrerariat, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations.

Florentino, R.F. and Pedro, M.R.A. (2006) Update on Rice Fortification in the Philippines [online], Bicutan, Taguig City, Philippines: Food and Nutrition Research Institute, Department of Science and Technology (DOST) ≯www.unu.edu/unupress/food/V192e/ch09.htm< [accessed 17 May 2013]. www.unu.edu/unupress/food/V192e/ch09.htm

GM Watch (2012) ‘Golden Rice “could save a million kids a year”’ [online], Norwich, UK: GM Watch ≯http://gmwatch.org/gm-myths/11130< [accessed 14 March 2013]. http://gmwatch.org/gm-myths/11130

Hagenimama, V., Low, J., Anyango, M., Kurz, K.M., Gichuki, S.T. and Kabira, J. (2001) ‘Enhancing vitamin A intake in young children in Western Kenya: orange-fleshed sweet potato can serve as key entry points’, Food and Nutrition Bulletin: Special Issue on Long-Term Food-Based Approaches Towards Eliminating Vitamin A Deficiency in Africa 22: 376-87.

Haggblade, S., Longabaugh, S. and Tschirley, D. (2009) ‘Spatial patterns of food staple production and marketing in South East Africa: implications for trade policy and emergency response’, MSU International Development Working Paper No. 100, East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University.

HarvestPlus (2004) Breeding Crops for Better Nutrition: Harnessing Agricultural Technology to Improve Micronutrient Deficiencies, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.

HarvestPlus (2012) Disseminating Orange-Fleshed Sweet Potato: Findings from a HarvestPlus project in Mozambique and Uganda, Washington, DC: HarvestPlus.

Hellin, J. and Erenstein, O. (2009) ‘Maize-poultry value chains in India: implications for research and development’, Journal of New Seeds 10: 245-63 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15228860903303932<.

IRRI (2013) ‘Clarifying recent news about Golden Rice’ [online], Manila: International Rice Research Institute ≯www.irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=12483< [accessed 14 March 2013]. www.irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=12483

Johns, T. and Sthapit, B.R. (2004) ‘Biocultural diversity in the sustainability of developing-country food systems’, Food and Nutrition Bulletin 25(2):143-55.

Latham, M. (2010) ‘The great vitamin A fiasco’, World Nutrition 1: 12-45 ≯www.wphna.org/wn_commentary.asp< [accessed 11 April 2013]. www.wphna.org/wn_commentary.asp

Low, J.W., Arimond, M., Osman, N., Cunguara, B., Zano, F. and Tschirley, D. (2007) ‘A food-based approach introducing orange-fleshed sweet potatoes increased vitamin A intake and serum retinol concentrations in young children in rural Mozambique’, Journal of Nutrition 137: 1320-27 ≯http://jn.nutrition.org/content/137/5/1320.short< [accessed 11 April 2013].

McVie, R. (2013) ‘After 30 years, is a GM food breakthrough finally here?’ The Observer, 2 February.

Meenakshi, J.V., Johnson, N.L., Manyong, V.M., DeGroote, H., Javelosa, J., Yanggen, D.R., Naher, F., Gonzalez, C., Garcia, J. and Meng, E. (2010) ‘How cost-effective is biofortification in combating micronutrient malnutrition? An ex ante assessment’, World Development 38: 64-75 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.03.014<.

Mertz, E.T. (1997) ‘Thirty years of opaque2 maize’, in B.A. Larkins and E.T. Mertz (eds), Quality Protein Maize: 1964-1994, West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press.

Nash, M. (2001) ‘Grains of hope’, Time Magazine, Monday 5 February 2001: 38-46.

Nayar, A. (2011) ‘Grants aim to fight malnutrition’, Nature News [online], 14 April 2011 ≯http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/news.2011.233<.

Nestel, P., Bouis, H.E., Meenakshi, J.V. and Pfeiffer, W. (2006) ‘Biofortification of staple food crops’, Journal of Nutrition 136: 1064-67.

Nestle, M. (2001) ‘Article: genetically engineered “Golden Rice” is unlikely to overcome vitamin A deficiency; response by Ingo Potrykus’, Journal of the American Diabetic Association 101: 289-90; Debate 2001.

Normile, D. (1999) ‘Rice biotechnology: Rockerfeller to end network after 15 years of success’, Science 286: 1468-69.

PhilRice (2003) ‘NE farmers see no risk in Golden Rice’, PhilRice Newsletter 16: 21.

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