Sustainability of rural water systems: quantitative analysis of Nicaragua’s monitoring data
The sustainability of rural water supply services (WSS) remains one of the core challenges of the rural water sector in Nicaragua. The data available through the Central American Rural Water and Sanitation Information System in Nicaragua (SIASAR, in Spanish) is utilized to investigate the factors that drive the sustained functionality and quality of rural WSS systems over time. This report uses data from 6,863 communities, 4,792 water systems, 2,585 service providers, and 154 technical assistance (TA) providers contained in the SIASAR dataset. Statistical and econometric analysis provide evidence to support the hypothesis – widespread among rural WSS practitioners – that ‘soft’ measures in the provision of WSS are effective in fostering sustainability or ‘functionality’ of those systems. Such ‘soft’ measures include management capacity building of WSS community boards in charge of WSS oversight; demand-responsive approaches for developing, operating, managing, maintaining, rural water infrastructure; cost recovery mechanisms; community participation in the management of WSS systems; and the sustained provision of post-construction TA by local authorities. These measures are found as important determinants of the sustainability of WSS and its investments, and therefore are recommended to be included and institutionalized in rural WSS sector development policies.Babel, M., Pandey, V.P., Rivas, A.A. and Wahid, S.M. (2011) ‘Indicator-based approach for assessing the vulnerability of freshwater resources in the Bagmati River Basin, Nepal’, Environmental Management 48(5): 1044 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9744-y>.
Boulenouar, J., Schweitzer, R. and Lockwood, H. (2013) Mapping Sustainability Assessment Tools to Support Sustainable Water and Sanitation Service Delivery [pdf], IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre <www.sswm.info/sites/default/files/reference_attachments/BOULENOUAR%20et%20al%202013%20Mapping%20Sustainability%20Assessment%20Tools%20to%20Support%20Sustainable%20Water%20and%20Sanitation%20Service%20Delivery.pdf> [accessed 16 December 2016].
Curtis, V., Schmidt, W., Luby, S., Florez, R., Touré, O. and Biran, A. (2011) ‘Hygiene: new hopes, new horizons’, Lancet Infectious Diseases 11: 312–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70224-3>.
Dasha, R.K. and Sahoob, P. (2010) ‘Economic growth in India: the role of physical and social infrastructure’, Journal of Economic Policy and Reform 13(4): 373–85 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17487870.2010.523980>.
ECLAC (Economic Commission on Latin America and the Caribbean) (2014) Guaranteeing Indigenous People’s Rights in Latin America: Progress in the Past Decade and Remaining Challenges [pdf], Santiago, Chile: ECLAC <http://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/37051/4/S1420782_en.pdf> [accessed 14 June 2016].
Fondo de Inversión Social de Emergencia (FISE) (2013) Manual de Ejecución de Proyectos de Agua y Saneamiento (MEPAS), 4º versión, Managua, Nicaragua: FISE.
Foster, T. (2013) ‘Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda’, Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 47(21): 12037–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es402086n>.
Ioris, A.R., Hunter, C. and Walker, S. (2008) ‘The development and application of water management sustainability indicators in Brazil and Scotland’, Journal of Environmental Management 88(4): 1190–201.
JMP (World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Joint Monitoring Programme) (2015) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment [pdf], <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Update-report-2015_English.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
Katz, T. and Sara, J.J. (1997) Making Rural Water Supply Sustainable: Recommendations from a Global Study [pdf], Washington, DC: UNDP-World Bank, Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) <www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1998/11/17/000009265_3981005112156/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf> [accessed 14 June 2016].
Kwena, R. and Moronge, M. (2015) Rural Water Sustainability [online], SSRN <http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2604874> [accessed 15 June 2016].
Lachavanne, B. and Juge, R. (2009) ‘LEMANO: Pour une gestion durable de l’eau’, Lémaniques 72: 1–16.
Mehta, L. and Movik, S. (2014) ‘Liquid dynamics: challenges for sustainability in the water domain’, WIREs Water 1: 369–84 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1031>.
Njonjo, A. and Lane, J. (2002) Rural Piped Water Supplies in Ethiopia, Malawi and Kenya: Community Management and Sustainability [pdf], Nairobi, Kenya: Water and Sanitation Program (WSP), World Bank <www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2003/09/02/000160016_20030902100028/Rendered/PDF/266330WSP0Blue0Gold0field0note0no1013.pdf> [accessed 14 June 2016].
Nkongo, D. (2009) Management and Regulation for Sustainable Water Supply Schemes in Rural Communities [pdf], Dar es Salaam: WaterAid Tanzania <www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/sustainable-water-supply-schemes-rural-communities.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
Robinson, A. (2004) Lessons Learned from Rural Water Supply Projects in the Philippines: Identifying Elements of Sustainability [pdf], Washington, DC: Water and Sanitation Program (WSP), World Bank <www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/11/14/000334955_20081114043547/Rendered/PDF/464260WSP0Box31entsofsustainability.pdf> [accessed 14 June 2016].
Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) (2009) ‘Handpump data, selected countries in sub-Saharan Africa’ [online], St Gallen, Switzerland: RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/203> [accessed 15 June 2016].
Smits, S., Rojas, J. and Tamayo, P. (2013) ‘The impact of support to community-based rural water service providers: evidence from Colombia’, Water Alternatives 6(3): 384–404 [pdf] <www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/art6-3-4.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
Starkl, M., Brunner, N. and Strenstorm, T.A. (2013) ‘Why do water and sanitation systems for the poor still fail? Policy analysis in economically advanced developing countries’, Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 47(12): 6102–10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es3048416>.
Sullivan, C. and Meigh, J. (2007) ‘Integration of the biophysical and social sciences using an indicator approach: addressing water problems at different scales’, Water Resources Management 21(1): 111–28 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11269-006-9044-0>.
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2010) Addressing Low Coverage of Sanitation and Hygiene, New York: UNICEF.
Valenzuela Montes, L.M. and Mataran Ruiz, A. (2008) ‘Environmental indicators to evaluate spatial and water planning in the coast of Granada (Spain)’, Land Use Policy 25(1): 95–105 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2007.03.002>.
Verhoeven, J. and Smits, S. (2011) ‘Post-construction support for sustainable rural water supply services: expenditure on direct and indirect support’, presented at the 6th Rural Water Supply Network Forum 2011 Uganda. Rural Water Supply in the 21st Century: Myths of the Past, Visions for the Future [pdf], The Hague, Netherlands: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre <https://rwsnforum.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/193-post-construction-support-for-sustainable-rural-water-supply-services.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
World Bank (2009) Post-Construction Support and Sustainability in Community-Managed Rural Water Supply: Case Studies in Peru, Bolivia, and Ghana [pdf], Water Sector Board Discussion Paper Series no. 14, Washington, DC: World Bank <www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/06/03/000333037_20090603002655/Rendered/PDF/487310NWP0Box311PostConstructionRWS.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
World Bank (2014) International Development Association Project Appraisal Document … Sustainable Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project, PAD775 [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank <www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2014/02/28/000442464_20140228101248/Rendered/PDF/PAD7750P147006010Box382155B00OUO090.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
World Health Organization (WHO) (2008) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality – Volume 1: Recommendations Geneva: WHO.
Babel, M., Pandey, V.P., Rivas, A.A. and Wahid, S.M. (2011) ‘Indicator-based approach for assessing the vulnerability of freshwater resources in the Bagmati River Basin, Nepal’, Environmental Management 48(5): 1044 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9744-y>.
Boulenouar, J., Schweitzer, R. and Lockwood, H. (2013) Mapping Sustainability Assessment Tools to Support Sustainable Water and Sanitation Service Delivery [pdf], IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre <www.sswm.info/sites/default/files/reference_attachments/BOULENOUAR%20et%20al%202013%20Mapping%20Sustainability%20Assessment%20Tools%20to%20Support%20Sustainable%20Water%20and%20Sanitation%20Service%20Delivery.pdf> [accessed 16 December 2016].
Curtis, V., Schmidt, W., Luby, S., Florez, R., Touré, O. and Biran, A. (2011) ‘Hygiene: new hopes, new horizons’, Lancet Infectious Diseases 11: 312–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70224-3>.
Dasha, R.K. and Sahoob, P. (2010) ‘Economic growth in India: the role of physical and social infrastructure’, Journal of Economic Policy and Reform 13(4): 373–85 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17487870.2010.523980>.
ECLAC (Economic Commission on Latin America and the Caribbean) (2014) Guaranteeing Indigenous People’s Rights in Latin America: Progress in the Past Decade and Remaining Challenges [pdf], Santiago, Chile: ECLAC <http://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/37051/4/S1420782_en.pdf> [accessed 14 June 2016].
Fondo de Inversión Social de Emergencia (FISE) (2013) Manual de Ejecución de Proyectos de Agua y Saneamiento (MEPAS), 4º versión, Managua, Nicaragua: FISE.
Foster, T. (2013) ‘Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda’, Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 47(21): 12037–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es402086n>.
Ioris, A.R., Hunter, C. and Walker, S. (2008) ‘The development and application of water management sustainability indicators in Brazil and Scotland’, Journal of Environmental Management 88(4): 1190–201.
JMP (World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Joint Monitoring Programme) (2015) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment [pdf], <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Update-report-2015_English.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
Katz, T. and Sara, J.J. (1997) Making Rural Water Supply Sustainable: Recommendations from a Global Study [pdf], Washington, DC: UNDP-World Bank, Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) <www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1998/11/17/000009265_3981005112156/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf> [accessed 14 June 2016].
Kwena, R. and Moronge, M. (2015) Rural Water Sustainability [online], SSRN <http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2604874> [accessed 15 June 2016].
Lachavanne, B. and Juge, R. (2009) ‘LEMANO: Pour une gestion durable de l’eau’, Lémaniques 72: 1–16.
Mehta, L. and Movik, S. (2014) ‘Liquid dynamics: challenges for sustainability in the water domain’, WIREs Water 1: 369–84 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1031>.
Njonjo, A. and Lane, J. (2002) Rural Piped Water Supplies in Ethiopia, Malawi and Kenya: Community Management and Sustainability [pdf], Nairobi, Kenya: Water and Sanitation Program (WSP), World Bank <www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2003/09/02/000160016_20030902100028/Rendered/PDF/266330WSP0Blue0Gold0field0note0no1013.pdf> [accessed 14 June 2016].
Nkongo, D. (2009) Management and Regulation for Sustainable Water Supply Schemes in Rural Communities [pdf], Dar es Salaam: WaterAid Tanzania <www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/sustainable-water-supply-schemes-rural-communities.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
Robinson, A. (2004) Lessons Learned from Rural Water Supply Projects in the Philippines: Identifying Elements of Sustainability [pdf], Washington, DC: Water and Sanitation Program (WSP), World Bank <www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/11/14/000334955_20081114043547/Rendered/PDF/464260WSP0Box31entsofsustainability.pdf> [accessed 14 June 2016].
Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) (2009) ‘Handpump data, selected countries in sub-Saharan Africa’ [online], St Gallen, Switzerland: RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/203> [accessed 15 June 2016].
Smits, S., Rojas, J. and Tamayo, P. (2013) ‘The impact of support to community-based rural water service providers: evidence from Colombia’, Water Alternatives 6(3): 384–404 [pdf] <www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/art6-3-4.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
Starkl, M., Brunner, N. and Strenstorm, T.A. (2013) ‘Why do water and sanitation systems for the poor still fail? Policy analysis in economically advanced developing countries’, Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 47(12): 6102–10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es3048416>.
Sullivan, C. and Meigh, J. (2007) ‘Integration of the biophysical and social sciences using an indicator approach: addressing water problems at different scales’, Water Resources Management 21(1): 111–28 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11269-006-9044-0>.
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2010) Addressing Low Coverage of Sanitation and Hygiene, New York: UNICEF.
Valenzuela Montes, L.M. and Mataran Ruiz, A. (2008) ‘Environmental indicators to evaluate spatial and water planning in the coast of Granada (Spain)’, Land Use Policy 25(1): 95–105 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2007.03.002>.
Verhoeven, J. and Smits, S. (2011) ‘Post-construction support for sustainable rural water supply services: expenditure on direct and indirect support’, presented at the 6th Rural Water Supply Network Forum 2011 Uganda. Rural Water Supply in the 21st Century: Myths of the Past, Visions for the Future [pdf], The Hague, Netherlands: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre <https://rwsnforum.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/193-post-construction-support-for-sustainable-rural-water-supply-services.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
World Bank (2009) Post-Construction Support and Sustainability in Community-Managed Rural Water Supply: Case Studies in Peru, Bolivia, and Ghana [pdf], Water Sector Board Discussion Paper Series no. 14, Washington, DC: World Bank <www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/06/03/000333037_20090603002655/Rendered/PDF/487310NWP0Box311PostConstructionRWS.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
World Bank (2014) International Development Association Project Appraisal Document … Sustainable Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project, PAD775 [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank <www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2014/02/28/000442464_20140228101248/Rendered/PDF/PAD7750P147006010Box382155B00OUO090.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
World Health Organization (WHO) (2008) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality – Volume 1: Recommendations Geneva: WHO.
Babel, M., Pandey, V.P., Rivas, A.A. and Wahid, S.M. (2011) ‘Indicator-based approach for assessing the vulnerability of freshwater resources in the Bagmati River Basin, Nepal’, Environmental Management 48(5): 1044 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9744-y>.
Boulenouar, J., Schweitzer, R. and Lockwood, H. (2013) Mapping Sustainability Assessment Tools to Support Sustainable Water and Sanitation Service Delivery [pdf], IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre <www.sswm.info/sites/default/files/reference_attachments/BOULENOUAR%20et%20al%202013%20Mapping%20Sustainability%20Assessment%20Tools%20to%20Support%20Sustainable%20Water%20and%20Sanitation%20Service%20Delivery.pdf> [accessed 16 December 2016].
Curtis, V., Schmidt, W., Luby, S., Florez, R., Touré, O. and Biran, A. (2011) ‘Hygiene: new hopes, new horizons’, Lancet Infectious Diseases 11: 312–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70224-3>.
Dasha, R.K. and Sahoob, P. (2010) ‘Economic growth in India: the role of physical and social infrastructure’, Journal of Economic Policy and Reform 13(4): 373–85 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17487870.2010.523980>.
ECLAC (Economic Commission on Latin America and the Caribbean) (2014) Guaranteeing Indigenous People’s Rights in Latin America: Progress in the Past Decade and Remaining Challenges [pdf], Santiago, Chile: ECLAC <http://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/37051/4/S1420782_en.pdf> [accessed 14 June 2016].
Fondo de Inversión Social de Emergencia (FISE) (2013) Manual de Ejecución de Proyectos de Agua y Saneamiento (MEPAS), 4º versión, Managua, Nicaragua: FISE.
Foster, T. (2013) ‘Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda’, Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 47(21): 12037–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es402086n>.
Ioris, A.R., Hunter, C. and Walker, S. (2008) ‘The development and application of water management sustainability indicators in Brazil and Scotland’, Journal of Environmental Management 88(4): 1190–201.
JMP (World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Joint Monitoring Programme) (2015) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment [pdf], <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Update-report-2015_English.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
Katz, T. and Sara, J.J. (1997) Making Rural Water Supply Sustainable: Recommendations from a Global Study [pdf], Washington, DC: UNDP-World Bank, Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) <www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1998/11/17/000009265_3981005112156/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf> [accessed 14 June 2016].
Kwena, R. and Moronge, M. (2015) Rural Water Sustainability [online], SSRN <http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2604874> [accessed 15 June 2016].
Lachavanne, B. and Juge, R. (2009) ‘LEMANO: Pour une gestion durable de l’eau’, Lémaniques 72: 1–16.
Mehta, L. and Movik, S. (2014) ‘Liquid dynamics: challenges for sustainability in the water domain’, WIREs Water 1: 369–84 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1031>.
Njonjo, A. and Lane, J. (2002) Rural Piped Water Supplies in Ethiopia, Malawi and Kenya: Community Management and Sustainability [pdf], Nairobi, Kenya: Water and Sanitation Program (WSP), World Bank <www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2003/09/02/000160016_20030902100028/Rendered/PDF/266330WSP0Blue0Gold0field0note0no1013.pdf> [accessed 14 June 2016].
Nkongo, D. (2009) Management and Regulation for Sustainable Water Supply Schemes in Rural Communities [pdf], Dar es Salaam: WaterAid Tanzania <www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/sustainable-water-supply-schemes-rural-communities.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
Robinson, A. (2004) Lessons Learned from Rural Water Supply Projects in the Philippines: Identifying Elements of Sustainability [pdf], Washington, DC: Water and Sanitation Program (WSP), World Bank <www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/11/14/000334955_20081114043547/Rendered/PDF/464260WSP0Box31entsofsustainability.pdf> [accessed 14 June 2016].
Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) (2009) ‘Handpump data, selected countries in sub-Saharan Africa’ [online], St Gallen, Switzerland: RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/203> [accessed 15 June 2016].
Smits, S., Rojas, J. and Tamayo, P. (2013) ‘The impact of support to community-based rural water service providers: evidence from Colombia’, Water Alternatives 6(3): 384–404 [pdf] <www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/art6-3-4.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
Starkl, M., Brunner, N. and Strenstorm, T.A. (2013) ‘Why do water and sanitation systems for the poor still fail? Policy analysis in economically advanced developing countries’, Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 47(12): 6102–10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es3048416>.
Sullivan, C. and Meigh, J. (2007) ‘Integration of the biophysical and social sciences using an indicator approach: addressing water problems at different scales’, Water Resources Management 21(1): 111–28 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11269-006-9044-0>.
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2010) Addressing Low Coverage of Sanitation and Hygiene, New York: UNICEF.
Valenzuela Montes, L.M. and Mataran Ruiz, A. (2008) ‘Environmental indicators to evaluate spatial and water planning in the coast of Granada (Spain)’, Land Use Policy 25(1): 95–105 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2007.03.002>.
Verhoeven, J. and Smits, S. (2011) ‘Post-construction support for sustainable rural water supply services: expenditure on direct and indirect support’, presented at the 6th Rural Water Supply Network Forum 2011 Uganda. Rural Water Supply in the 21st Century: Myths of the Past, Visions for the Future [pdf], The Hague, Netherlands: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre <https://rwsnforum.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/193-post-construction-support-for-sustainable-rural-water-supply-services.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
World Bank (2009) Post-Construction Support and Sustainability in Community-Managed Rural Water Supply: Case Studies in Peru, Bolivia, and Ghana [pdf], Water Sector Board Discussion Paper Series no. 14, Washington, DC: World Bank <www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/06/03/000333037_20090603002655/Rendered/PDF/487310NWP0Box311PostConstructionRWS.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
World Bank (2014) International Development Association Project Appraisal Document … Sustainable Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project, PAD775 [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank <www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2014/02/28/000442464_20140228101248/Rendered/PDF/PAD7750P147006010Box382155B00OUO090.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
World Health Organization (WHO) (2008) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality – Volume 1: Recommendations Geneva: WHO.
Babel, M., Pandey, V.P., Rivas, A.A. and Wahid, S.M. (2011) ‘Indicator-based approach for assessing the vulnerability of freshwater resources in the Bagmati River Basin, Nepal’, Environmental Management 48(5): 1044 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9744-y>.
Boulenouar, J., Schweitzer, R. and Lockwood, H. (2013) Mapping Sustainability Assessment Tools to Support Sustainable Water and Sanitation Service Delivery [pdf], IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre <www.sswm.info/sites/default/files/reference_attachments/BOULENOUAR%20et%20al%202013%20Mapping%20Sustainability%20Assessment%20Tools%20to%20Support%20Sustainable%20Water%20and%20Sanitation%20Service%20Delivery.pdf> [accessed 16 December 2016].
Curtis, V., Schmidt, W., Luby, S., Florez, R., Touré, O. and Biran, A. (2011) ‘Hygiene: new hopes, new horizons’, Lancet Infectious Diseases 11: 312–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70224-3>.
Dasha, R.K. and Sahoob, P. (2010) ‘Economic growth in India: the role of physical and social infrastructure’, Journal of Economic Policy and Reform 13(4): 373–85 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17487870.2010.523980>.
ECLAC (Economic Commission on Latin America and the Caribbean) (2014) Guaranteeing Indigenous People’s Rights in Latin America: Progress in the Past Decade and Remaining Challenges [pdf], Santiago, Chile: ECLAC <http://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/37051/4/S1420782_en.pdf> [accessed 14 June 2016].
Fondo de Inversión Social de Emergencia (FISE) (2013) Manual de Ejecución de Proyectos de Agua y Saneamiento (MEPAS), 4º versión, Managua, Nicaragua: FISE.
Foster, T. (2013) ‘Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda’, Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 47(21): 12037–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es402086n>.
Ioris, A.R., Hunter, C. and Walker, S. (2008) ‘The development and application of water management sustainability indicators in Brazil and Scotland’, Journal of Environmental Management 88(4): 1190–201.
JMP (World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Joint Monitoring Programme) (2015) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment [pdf], <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Update-report-2015_English.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
Katz, T. and Sara, J.J. (1997) Making Rural Water Supply Sustainable: Recommendations from a Global Study [pdf], Washington, DC: UNDP-World Bank, Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) <www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1998/11/17/000009265_3981005112156/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf> [accessed 14 June 2016].
Kwena, R. and Moronge, M. (2015) Rural Water Sustainability [online], SSRN <http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2604874> [accessed 15 June 2016].
Lachavanne, B. and Juge, R. (2009) ‘LEMANO: Pour une gestion durable de l’eau’, Lémaniques 72: 1–16.
Mehta, L. and Movik, S. (2014) ‘Liquid dynamics: challenges for sustainability in the water domain’, WIREs Water 1: 369–84 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1031>.
Njonjo, A. and Lane, J. (2002) Rural Piped Water Supplies in Ethiopia, Malawi and Kenya: Community Management and Sustainability [pdf], Nairobi, Kenya: Water and Sanitation Program (WSP), World Bank <www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2003/09/02/000160016_20030902100028/Rendered/PDF/266330WSP0Blue0Gold0field0note0no1013.pdf> [accessed 14 June 2016].
Nkongo, D. (2009) Management and Regulation for Sustainable Water Supply Schemes in Rural Communities [pdf], Dar es Salaam: WaterAid Tanzania <www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/sustainable-water-supply-schemes-rural-communities.pdf> [accessed 15 June 2016].
Robinson, A. (2004) Lessons Learned from Rural Water Supply Projects in the Philippines: Identifying Elements of Sustainability [pdf], Washington, DC: Water and Sanitation Program (WSP), World Bank <www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/11/14/000334955_20081114043547/Rendered/PDF/464260WSP0Box31entsofsustainability.pdf> [accessed 14 June 2016].
Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) (2009) ‘Handpump data, selected countries in sub-Saharan Africa’ [online], St Gallen, Switzerland: RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/203> [accessed 15 June 2016].
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