Urban community-led total sanitation: a potential way forward for co-producing sanitation services
Community-led total sanitation (CLTS) has been proved to be a successful strategy for tackling the challenge of open defecation in poor rural communities across Africa and Asia. This article explores whether a similar approach can be used in peri-urban and urban areas to help co-produce sanitation facilities and services with inputs from communities, duty bearers, and other sanitation stakeholders. It is argued that an urban CLTS approach does not mean a copy and paste of tools and methods which have proved successful in the rural environment but following a set of similar principles. Based on field experiences different steps are suggested that incorporate these principles and respond to the specific urban sanitation problem. This article helps to articulate and better define urban CLTS as well as giving practical guidance for those wanting to use this kind of approach.Abramovsky, L., Augsubrg, B., Flynn, E. and Oteiza, F. (2016) Improving CLTS Targeting: Evidence from Nigeria [pdf], London: Institute for Fiscal Studies <www.ifs.org.uk/uploads/publications/bns/BN183.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Azafady (2015) Adapting Rural CLTS for Urban Settings: Azafady UK’s Experience in Fort-Dauphin, South East Madagascar [pdf], London: Azafady <www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/Azafady_Adapting_rural_CLTS_for_urban_settings.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Bhatta, D. (2015) ‘Gender equality and social inclusion in ODF Gulariya project’ [online], Rugby, UK: Practical Action <http://practicalaction.org/blog/news/gender-equality-and-social-inclusion-in-odf-gulariya-project/> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Bright-Davis, L., Lüthi, C. and Jachnow, A. (2015) ‘DEWATS for urban Nepal: a comparative assessment for community wastewater management’, Waterlines 34(2): 119–138 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2015.012>.
Cameron, L., Olivia, S. and Shah, M. (2015) Initial Conditions Matter: Social Capital and Participatory Development [pdf], Discussion Paper No. 9563, Bonn: IZA <http://ftp.iza.org/dp9563.pdf> [accessed 6 September 2016].
Hasan, A. (2010) Participatory Development: The Story of the Orangi Pilot Project-Research and Training Institute, and the Urban Resource Centre, Karachi, Pakistan, New York: Oxford University Press.
IUWASH (2015) Improving Lifestyle and Health: A Guide to Urban Sanitation Promotion, <http://iuwash.or.id/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2016/02/Guide-to-Urban-Sanitation-Promotion-EN1.pdf> [accessed 26 September 2016]
Lüthi, C., McConville, J. and Kvarnström, E. (2010) ‘Community-based approaches for addressing the urban sanitation challenges’, International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 1: 49–63 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19463131003654764>.
Lüthi, C., Morel, A., Tilley, E. and Ulrich, L. (2011) Community-Led Urban Environmental Sanitation Planning: CLUES [pdf], Dübendorf: Eawag-Sandec/WSSCC/UN-HABITAT <https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/Domain1/Abteilungen/sandec/schwerpunkte/sesp/CLUES/CLUES_Guidelines.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
McGranahan, G. (2013) Community-Driven Sanitation Improvement in Deprived Urban Neighbourhoods: Meeting the Challenges of Local Collective Action, Co-production, Affordability and a Trans-sectoral Approach, London: SHARE Research.
McGranahan, G. (2015) ‘Realizing the right to sanitation in deprived urban communities: meeting the challenge of collective action, coproduction, affordability, and housing tenure’, World Development 68: 242–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.12.008>.
McGranahan, G. and Mitlin, D. (2016) ‘Learning from sustained success: how community-driven initiatives to improve urban sanitation can meet the challenges’, World Development 87: 307–17 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.06.019>.
Myers, J. (2016) ‘Using a CLTS approach and/or CLTS tools in urban environments: themes and trends’, 39th WEDC International Conference, Kumasi, Ghana, 11–15 July [pdf], Loughborough: WEDC <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/39/Myers-2425.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Myers, J., Pasteur, K. and Cavill, S. (2016) The Addis Agreement: Using CLTS in Peri-Urban and Urban Areas [pdf], CLTS Knowledge Hub Learning Paper, Brighton: IDS <www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/The_Addis_Agreement_CLTS_urban_0.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children (2016) National Guidelines for Urban Community Led Total Sanitation (U-CLTS), Government of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam <http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/URBAN_CLTS_Tanzania.pdf> [accessed 26 September 2016].
Ostrom, E. (1996) ‘Crossing the great divide: coproduction, synergy, and development’, World Development 24(6): 1073–87 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(96)00023-X>.
Pasteur, K. and Prabhakaran, P. (2015) Lessons in Urban Community-Led Total Sanitation from Nakuru, Kenya [pdf], Rugby: Practical Action <www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/PracticalAction_LessonsOnUrbanCLTSNakuruKenya_Apr2015.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Pervaiz, A., Rahman, R. and Hasan, A. (2008) Lessons from Karachi: The Role of Demonstration, Documentation, Mapping and Relationship Building in Advocacy for Improved Urban Sanitation and Water Services, Human Settlements Working Paper 6, Water Series, London: IIED.
Plan Netherlands (2016) Plan Netherlands’ Experience of Using a CLTS Approach in Urban Environments [pdf], Amsterdam: Plan International Netherlands <www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/Urban_CLTS_Plan.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Satterthwaite, D. (2016) ‘Missing the Millennium Development Goal targets for water and sanitation in urban areas’, Environment and Urbanization 28(1): 1–20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247816628435>.
Satterthwaite, D. and Mitlin, D. (2013) A Future that Low-Income Urban Dwellers Want, and Can Help Secure [pdf], Human Settlements Working Paper Series, London: IIED <http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10626IIED.pdf> [accessed 9 September 2016].
Thomas, A. and Alvestegui, A. (2015) Sanitation in Small Towns: Experience from Mozambique [pdf], Eastern and Southern Africa Learning Series, Nairobi: UNICEF <www.unicef.org/esaro/WASH-Field-Small-Towns-low-res.pdf> [accessed 9 September 2016].
Watson, G. (1995) Good Sewers Cheap? Agency – Customer Interactions in Low-Cost Urban Sanitation in Brazil, Washington, DC: World Bank Water and Sanitation Division.
Abramovsky, L., Augsubrg, B., Flynn, E. and Oteiza, F. (2016) Improving CLTS Targeting: Evidence from Nigeria [pdf], London: Institute for Fiscal Studies <www.ifs.org.uk/uploads/publications/bns/BN183.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Azafady (2015) Adapting Rural CLTS for Urban Settings: Azafady UK’s Experience in Fort-Dauphin, South East Madagascar [pdf], London: Azafady <www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/Azafady_Adapting_rural_CLTS_for_urban_settings.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Bhatta, D. (2015) ‘Gender equality and social inclusion in ODF Gulariya project’ [online], Rugby, UK: Practical Action <http://practicalaction.org/blog/news/gender-equality-and-social-inclusion-in-odf-gulariya-project/> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Bright-Davis, L., Lüthi, C. and Jachnow, A. (2015) ‘DEWATS for urban Nepal: a comparative assessment for community wastewater management’, Waterlines 34(2): 119–138 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2015.012>.
Cameron, L., Olivia, S. and Shah, M. (2015) Initial Conditions Matter: Social Capital and Participatory Development [pdf], Discussion Paper No. 9563, Bonn: IZA <http://ftp.iza.org/dp9563.pdf> [accessed 6 September 2016].
Hasan, A. (2010) Participatory Development: The Story of the Orangi Pilot Project-Research and Training Institute, and the Urban Resource Centre, Karachi, Pakistan, New York: Oxford University Press.
IUWASH (2015) Improving Lifestyle and Health: A Guide to Urban Sanitation Promotion, <http://iuwash.or.id/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2016/02/Guide-to-Urban-Sanitation-Promotion-EN1.pdf> [accessed 26 September 2016]
Lüthi, C., McConville, J. and Kvarnström, E. (2010) ‘Community-based approaches for addressing the urban sanitation challenges’, International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 1: 49–63 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19463131003654764>.
Lüthi, C., Morel, A., Tilley, E. and Ulrich, L. (2011) Community-Led Urban Environmental Sanitation Planning: CLUES [pdf], Dübendorf: Eawag-Sandec/WSSCC/UN-HABITAT <https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/Domain1/Abteilungen/sandec/schwerpunkte/sesp/CLUES/CLUES_Guidelines.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
McGranahan, G. (2013) Community-Driven Sanitation Improvement in Deprived Urban Neighbourhoods: Meeting the Challenges of Local Collective Action, Co-production, Affordability and a Trans-sectoral Approach, London: SHARE Research.
McGranahan, G. (2015) ‘Realizing the right to sanitation in deprived urban communities: meeting the challenge of collective action, coproduction, affordability, and housing tenure’, World Development 68: 242–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.12.008>.
McGranahan, G. and Mitlin, D. (2016) ‘Learning from sustained success: how community-driven initiatives to improve urban sanitation can meet the challenges’, World Development 87: 307–17 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.06.019>.
Myers, J. (2016) ‘Using a CLTS approach and/or CLTS tools in urban environments: themes and trends’, 39th WEDC International Conference, Kumasi, Ghana, 11–15 July [pdf], Loughborough: WEDC <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/39/Myers-2425.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Myers, J., Pasteur, K. and Cavill, S. (2016) The Addis Agreement: Using CLTS in Peri-Urban and Urban Areas [pdf], CLTS Knowledge Hub Learning Paper, Brighton: IDS <www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/The_Addis_Agreement_CLTS_urban_0.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children (2016) National Guidelines for Urban Community Led Total Sanitation (U-CLTS), Government of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam <http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/URBAN_CLTS_Tanzania.pdf> [accessed 26 September 2016].
Ostrom, E. (1996) ‘Crossing the great divide: coproduction, synergy, and development’, World Development 24(6): 1073–87 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(96)00023-X>.
Pasteur, K. and Prabhakaran, P. (2015) Lessons in Urban Community-Led Total Sanitation from Nakuru, Kenya [pdf], Rugby: Practical Action <www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/PracticalAction_LessonsOnUrbanCLTSNakuruKenya_Apr2015.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Pervaiz, A., Rahman, R. and Hasan, A. (2008) Lessons from Karachi: The Role of Demonstration, Documentation, Mapping and Relationship Building in Advocacy for Improved Urban Sanitation and Water Services, Human Settlements Working Paper 6, Water Series, London: IIED.
Plan Netherlands (2016) Plan Netherlands’ Experience of Using a CLTS Approach in Urban Environments [pdf], Amsterdam: Plan International Netherlands <www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/Urban_CLTS_Plan.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Satterthwaite, D. (2016) ‘Missing the Millennium Development Goal targets for water and sanitation in urban areas’, Environment and Urbanization 28(1): 1–20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247816628435>.
Satterthwaite, D. and Mitlin, D. (2013) A Future that Low-Income Urban Dwellers Want, and Can Help Secure [pdf], Human Settlements Working Paper Series, London: IIED <http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10626IIED.pdf> [accessed 9 September 2016].
Thomas, A. and Alvestegui, A. (2015) Sanitation in Small Towns: Experience from Mozambique [pdf], Eastern and Southern Africa Learning Series, Nairobi: UNICEF <www.unicef.org/esaro/WASH-Field-Small-Towns-low-res.pdf> [accessed 9 September 2016].
Watson, G. (1995) Good Sewers Cheap? Agency – Customer Interactions in Low-Cost Urban Sanitation in Brazil, Washington, DC: World Bank Water and Sanitation Division.
Abramovsky, L., Augsubrg, B., Flynn, E. and Oteiza, F. (2016) Improving CLTS Targeting: Evidence from Nigeria [pdf], London: Institute for Fiscal Studies <www.ifs.org.uk/uploads/publications/bns/BN183.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Azafady (2015) Adapting Rural CLTS for Urban Settings: Azafady UK’s Experience in Fort-Dauphin, South East Madagascar [pdf], London: Azafady <www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/Azafady_Adapting_rural_CLTS_for_urban_settings.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Bhatta, D. (2015) ‘Gender equality and social inclusion in ODF Gulariya project’ [online], Rugby, UK: Practical Action <http://practicalaction.org/blog/news/gender-equality-and-social-inclusion-in-odf-gulariya-project/> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Bright-Davis, L., Lüthi, C. and Jachnow, A. (2015) ‘DEWATS for urban Nepal: a comparative assessment for community wastewater management’, Waterlines 34(2): 119–138 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2015.012>.
Cameron, L., Olivia, S. and Shah, M. (2015) Initial Conditions Matter: Social Capital and Participatory Development [pdf], Discussion Paper No. 9563, Bonn: IZA <http://ftp.iza.org/dp9563.pdf> [accessed 6 September 2016].
Hasan, A. (2010) Participatory Development: The Story of the Orangi Pilot Project-Research and Training Institute, and the Urban Resource Centre, Karachi, Pakistan, New York: Oxford University Press.
IUWASH (2015) Improving Lifestyle and Health: A Guide to Urban Sanitation Promotion, <http://iuwash.or.id/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2016/02/Guide-to-Urban-Sanitation-Promotion-EN1.pdf> [accessed 26 September 2016]
Lüthi, C., McConville, J. and Kvarnström, E. (2010) ‘Community-based approaches for addressing the urban sanitation challenges’, International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 1: 49–63 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19463131003654764>.
Lüthi, C., Morel, A., Tilley, E. and Ulrich, L. (2011) Community-Led Urban Environmental Sanitation Planning: CLUES [pdf], Dübendorf: Eawag-Sandec/WSSCC/UN-HABITAT <https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/Domain1/Abteilungen/sandec/schwerpunkte/sesp/CLUES/CLUES_Guidelines.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
McGranahan, G. (2013) Community-Driven Sanitation Improvement in Deprived Urban Neighbourhoods: Meeting the Challenges of Local Collective Action, Co-production, Affordability and a Trans-sectoral Approach, London: SHARE Research.
McGranahan, G. (2015) ‘Realizing the right to sanitation in deprived urban communities: meeting the challenge of collective action, coproduction, affordability, and housing tenure’, World Development 68: 242–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.12.008>.
McGranahan, G. and Mitlin, D. (2016) ‘Learning from sustained success: how community-driven initiatives to improve urban sanitation can meet the challenges’, World Development 87: 307–17 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.06.019>.
Myers, J. (2016) ‘Using a CLTS approach and/or CLTS tools in urban environments: themes and trends’, 39th WEDC International Conference, Kumasi, Ghana, 11–15 July [pdf], Loughborough: WEDC <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/39/Myers-2425.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Myers, J., Pasteur, K. and Cavill, S. (2016) The Addis Agreement: Using CLTS in Peri-Urban and Urban Areas [pdf], CLTS Knowledge Hub Learning Paper, Brighton: IDS <www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/The_Addis_Agreement_CLTS_urban_0.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children (2016) National Guidelines for Urban Community Led Total Sanitation (U-CLTS), Government of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam <http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/URBAN_CLTS_Tanzania.pdf> [accessed 26 September 2016].
Ostrom, E. (1996) ‘Crossing the great divide: coproduction, synergy, and development’, World Development 24(6): 1073–87 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(96)00023-X>.
Pasteur, K. and Prabhakaran, P. (2015) Lessons in Urban Community-Led Total Sanitation from Nakuru, Kenya [pdf], Rugby: Practical Action <www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/PracticalAction_LessonsOnUrbanCLTSNakuruKenya_Apr2015.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Pervaiz, A., Rahman, R. and Hasan, A. (2008) Lessons from Karachi: The Role of Demonstration, Documentation, Mapping and Relationship Building in Advocacy for Improved Urban Sanitation and Water Services, Human Settlements Working Paper 6, Water Series, London: IIED.
Plan Netherlands (2016) Plan Netherlands’ Experience of Using a CLTS Approach in Urban Environments [pdf], Amsterdam: Plan International Netherlands <www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/Urban_CLTS_Plan.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Satterthwaite, D. (2016) ‘Missing the Millennium Development Goal targets for water and sanitation in urban areas’, Environment and Urbanization 28(1): 1–20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247816628435>.
Satterthwaite, D. and Mitlin, D. (2013) A Future that Low-Income Urban Dwellers Want, and Can Help Secure [pdf], Human Settlements Working Paper Series, London: IIED <http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10626IIED.pdf> [accessed 9 September 2016].
Thomas, A. and Alvestegui, A. (2015) Sanitation in Small Towns: Experience from Mozambique [pdf], Eastern and Southern Africa Learning Series, Nairobi: UNICEF <www.unicef.org/esaro/WASH-Field-Small-Towns-low-res.pdf> [accessed 9 September 2016].
Watson, G. (1995) Good Sewers Cheap? Agency – Customer Interactions in Low-Cost Urban Sanitation in Brazil, Washington, DC: World Bank Water and Sanitation Division.
Abramovsky, L., Augsubrg, B., Flynn, E. and Oteiza, F. (2016) Improving CLTS Targeting: Evidence from Nigeria [pdf], London: Institute for Fiscal Studies <www.ifs.org.uk/uploads/publications/bns/BN183.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Azafady (2015) Adapting Rural CLTS for Urban Settings: Azafady UK’s Experience in Fort-Dauphin, South East Madagascar [pdf], London: Azafady <www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/Azafady_Adapting_rural_CLTS_for_urban_settings.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Bhatta, D. (2015) ‘Gender equality and social inclusion in ODF Gulariya project’ [online], Rugby, UK: Practical Action <http://practicalaction.org/blog/news/gender-equality-and-social-inclusion-in-odf-gulariya-project/> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Bright-Davis, L., Lüthi, C. and Jachnow, A. (2015) ‘DEWATS for urban Nepal: a comparative assessment for community wastewater management’, Waterlines 34(2): 119–138 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2015.012>.
Cameron, L., Olivia, S. and Shah, M. (2015) Initial Conditions Matter: Social Capital and Participatory Development [pdf], Discussion Paper No. 9563, Bonn: IZA <http://ftp.iza.org/dp9563.pdf> [accessed 6 September 2016].
Hasan, A. (2010) Participatory Development: The Story of the Orangi Pilot Project-Research and Training Institute, and the Urban Resource Centre, Karachi, Pakistan, New York: Oxford University Press.
IUWASH (2015) Improving Lifestyle and Health: A Guide to Urban Sanitation Promotion, <http://iuwash.or.id/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2016/02/Guide-to-Urban-Sanitation-Promotion-EN1.pdf> [accessed 26 September 2016]
Lüthi, C., McConville, J. and Kvarnström, E. (2010) ‘Community-based approaches for addressing the urban sanitation challenges’, International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 1: 49–63 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19463131003654764>.
Lüthi, C., Morel, A., Tilley, E. and Ulrich, L. (2011) Community-Led Urban Environmental Sanitation Planning: CLUES [pdf], Dübendorf: Eawag-Sandec/WSSCC/UN-HABITAT <https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/Domain1/Abteilungen/sandec/schwerpunkte/sesp/CLUES/CLUES_Guidelines.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
McGranahan, G. (2013) Community-Driven Sanitation Improvement in Deprived Urban Neighbourhoods: Meeting the Challenges of Local Collective Action, Co-production, Affordability and a Trans-sectoral Approach, London: SHARE Research.
McGranahan, G. (2015) ‘Realizing the right to sanitation in deprived urban communities: meeting the challenge of collective action, coproduction, affordability, and housing tenure’, World Development 68: 242–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.12.008>.
McGranahan, G. and Mitlin, D. (2016) ‘Learning from sustained success: how community-driven initiatives to improve urban sanitation can meet the challenges’, World Development 87: 307–17 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.06.019>.
Myers, J. (2016) ‘Using a CLTS approach and/or CLTS tools in urban environments: themes and trends’, 39th WEDC International Conference, Kumasi, Ghana, 11–15 July [pdf], Loughborough: WEDC <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/39/Myers-2425.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Myers, J., Pasteur, K. and Cavill, S. (2016) The Addis Agreement: Using CLTS in Peri-Urban and Urban Areas [pdf], CLTS Knowledge Hub Learning Paper, Brighton: IDS <www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/The_Addis_Agreement_CLTS_urban_0.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children (2016) National Guidelines for Urban Community Led Total Sanitation (U-CLTS), Government of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam <http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/URBAN_CLTS_Tanzania.pdf> [accessed 26 September 2016].
Ostrom, E. (1996) ‘Crossing the great divide: coproduction, synergy, and development’, World Development 24(6): 1073–87 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(96)00023-X>.
Pasteur, K. and Prabhakaran, P. (2015) Lessons in Urban Community-Led Total Sanitation from Nakuru, Kenya [pdf], Rugby: Practical Action <www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/PracticalAction_LessonsOnUrbanCLTSNakuruKenya_Apr2015.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Pervaiz, A., Rahman, R. and Hasan, A. (2008) Lessons from Karachi: The Role of Demonstration, Documentation, Mapping and Relationship Building in Advocacy for Improved Urban Sanitation and Water Services, Human Settlements Working Paper 6, Water Series, London: IIED.
Plan Netherlands (2016) Plan Netherlands’ Experience of Using a CLTS Approach in Urban Environments [pdf], Amsterdam: Plan International Netherlands <www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/Urban_CLTS_Plan.pdf> [accessed 5 September 2016].
Satterthwaite, D. (2016) ‘Missing the Millennium Development Goal targets for water and sanitation in urban areas’, Environment and Urbanization 28(1): 1–20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247816628435>.
Satterthwaite, D. and Mitlin, D. (2013) A Future that Low-Income Urban Dwellers Want, and Can Help Secure [pdf], Human Settlements Working Paper Series, London: IIED <http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10626IIED.pdf> [accessed 9 September 2016].
Thomas, A. and Alvestegui, A. (2015) Sanitation in Small Towns: Experience from Mozambique [pdf], Eastern and Southern Africa Learning Series, Nairobi: UNICEF <www.unicef.org/esaro/WASH-Field-Small-Towns-low-res.pdf> [accessed 9 September 2016].
Watson, G. (1995) Good Sewers Cheap? Agency – Customer Interactions in Low-Cost Urban Sanitation in Brazil, Washington, DC: World Bank Water and Sanitation Division.
Effect of a behaviour change intervention on the quality of peri-urban sanitation in Lusaka, Zambia: a randomised controlled trial
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