What is the scope for addressing menstrual hygiene management in complex humanitarian emergencies? A global review
Marni Sommer, Margaret L. Schmitt, David Clatworthy, Gina Bramucci, Erin Wheeler, Ruwan Ratnayake
Global attention on improving the integration of menstrual hygiene management (MHM) into humanitarian response is growing. However, there continues to be a lack of consensus on how best to approach MHM inclusion within response activities. This global review assessed the landscape of MHM practice, policy, and research within the field of humanitarian response. This included an analysis of the limited existing documentation and research on MHM in emergencies and global key informant interviews (n=29) conducted with humanitarian actors from relevant sectors (water, sanitation, and hygiene; women’s protection; child protection; health; education; non-food items; camp management). The findings indicate that despite a growing dialogue around MHM in emergencies, there remains a lack of clarity on the key components for a complete MHM response, the responsible sectoral actors to implement MHM activities, and the most effective interventions to adapt in emergency contexts, and insufficient guidance on monitoring and evaluation. There is a critical need for improved technical guidance and documentation on how to integrate MHM into existing programming and monitoring systems and to ensure adequate coordination and communication about MHM across relevant sectors. There is also a need for improved evidence on effective MHM approaches, the development of MHM-specific indicators, improved consultation with girls and women in crisis-afflicted areas, and the documentation of practical learning. It is only through improving the resources available and enhancing this evidence base that MHM can be perceived as an integral and routine component of any humanitarian response.Alam, M., Warren, R. and Applebaum, A. (2016) Closing the Gap: Adolescent Girls’ Access to Education in Conflict-Affected Settings [pdf], Washington, DC: Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security <https://giwps.georgetown.edu/sites/giwps/files/closing_the_gap_adolescent_girls_access_to_education_in_conflict-affected_settings.pdf> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Bentzen, C., Kvernmo, J.C., Hadley, E. and Vogel, V. (eds) (2008) Camp Management Toolkit [online], 2nd edn, Oslo: Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC)/The Camp Management Project (CMP) <www.nrc.no/?aid=9177505#.V1glw7srLs0> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Bishop, E., Dunn, J., Gregory, L., Murphy, E., Romero-Amaya, D. and Spector, A. (2014) Sanitary Kit Distribution within NRC Education Programs: Supporting Girls’ Education in Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia and South Sudan, unpublished report, New York.
Burkle, F.M.J., Martone, G. and Greenough, P.G. (2014) ‘The changing face of humanitarian crises’, Brown Journal of World Affairs 20(11): 19–35.
Child Protection Working Group (2012) Minimum Standards for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action [online] <http://cpwg.net/minimum-standards/> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Davoren, S.J. (2012) ‘Helping international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to include a focus on gender-based violence during the emergency phase: lessons learned from Haiti 2010–2011’, Gender & Development 20(2): 281–94 <http://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2012.687224>.
de Lange, R., Lenglet, A., Fesselet, J.F., Gartley, M., Altyev, A. and Fisher, J. (2014) ‘Keeping it simple: a gender-specific sanitation tool for emergencies’, Waterlines 33(1): 45–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2014.006>.
Elo, S. and Kyngäs, H. (2008) ‘The qualitative content analysis process’, Journal of Advanced Nursing 62(1): 107–16 <http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04569.x>.
Ford, N., Mills, E.J., Zachariah, R. and Upshur, R. (2009) ‘Ethics of conducting research in conflict settings’, Conflict and Health 3(7): 1–9 <http://doi.org/10.1186/1752-1505-3-7>.
Gasseer, N. Al, Dresden, E., Keeney, G.B. and Warren, N. (2004) ‘Status of women and infants in complex humanitarian emergencies’, Journal of Midwifery and Women’s Health 49(4): 7–13 <http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmwh.2004.05.001>.
Gosling, L., Irvine, C., Schechtman, L. and Velleman, Y. (2011) Nowhere to Go: How a Lack of Safe Toilets Threatens to Increase Violence against Women in Slums [pdf], London: WaterAid <www.wateraid.org/se/~/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere-to-go.pdf> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Harvey, P. (2005) Cash and Vouchers in Emergencies, Humanitarian Policy Group, London: Overseas Development Institute.
Hayden, T. (2012) Menstrual Hygiene Management in Emergencies: Taking Stock of Support from UNICEF and Partners, New York: UNICEF.
House, S., Mahon, T. and Cavill, S. (2012) Menstrual Hygiene Matters: A Resource for Improving Menstrual Hygiene Around the World, 1st edn, London: WaterAid.
Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) (2010) INEE Minimum Standards for Education: Preparedness, Response, Recovery, 2nd edn, New York: INEE.
INEE Gender Task Team (n.d.) Gender Responsive School Sanitation, Health and Hygiene [pdf], New York <http://toolkit.ineesite.org/toolkit/INEEcms/uploads/1042/Gender_Strategies_in_Emergencies.PDF> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) (2015) Guidelines for Integrating Gender-Based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Action [online], 2nd edn <http://gbvguidelines.org/> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Inter-Agency Working Group on Reproductive Health in Crises (2010) Inter-Agency Field Manual on Reproductive Health in Humanitarian Settings [online], 2nd edn, The Inter-agency Working Group on Reproductive Health in Crises <http://iawg.net/resource/field-manual/> [accessed 8 June 2016].
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) (2013) Operational Research on Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM) Kits for Emergencies, Bwagiriza, Burundi: IFRC.
International Rescue Committee (IRC) Adolescent Girls Initiative (2015) My Safety, My Wellbeing: Equipping Adolescent Girls with Key Knowledge and Skills to Mitigate, Prevent and Respond to Gender Based Violence, Beirut: IRC.
IRC-Myanmar (2014) WASH Cluster Brief: Hygiene Promotion – Menstrual Hygiene Management, Yangon: IRC.
Kjellén, M., Pensulo, C., Nordqvist, P. and Fogde, M. (2011) Global Review of Sanitation System Trends and Interactions with Menstrual Management Practices, Stockholm: Stockholm Environment Institute.
Kovacs, G. and Tatham, P. (2009) ‘Humanitarian logistics performance in the light of gender’, International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management 58(2): 174–87 <http://doi.org/10.1108/17410400910928752>.
Lahiri, S., van Ommeren, M. and Roberts, B. (2016) ‘The influence of humanitarian crises on social functioning among civilians in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review’, Global Public Health 1692(March): 1–18 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2016.1154585>.
Mahon, T. and Fernandes, M. (2010) ‘Menstrual hygiene in South Asia: a neglected issue for WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) programmes’, Gender & Development 18(1): 99–113 <http://doi.org/10.1080/13552071003600083>.
Mahon, T., Tripathy, A. and Singh, N. (2015) ‘Putting the men into menstruation: the role of men and boys in community menstrual hygiene management’, Waterlines 34(1): 7–14 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2015.002>.
Mazurana, D., Benelli, P., Gupta, H. and Walker, P. (2011) Sex and Age Matter: Improving Humanitarian Response in Emergencies, Boston, MA: Feinstein International Center, Tufts University.
Mena, R. (2015) Meeting Gender & MHM in MSF-OCA Health Structures, Loughborough, UK: Loughborough University.
Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) WatSan Working Group (2015) ‘Gender and sanitation tool for displaced people’, MSF <http://hdl.handle.net/10144/311201> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Nawaz, J., Lal, S., Raza, S. and House, S. (2006) ‘Screened toilet, bathing and menstruation units for the earthquake response in NWFP, Pakistan’, in 32nd WEDC International Conference, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 2006, pp. 514–7, Loughborough: WEDC, Loughborough University <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/32/Nawaz.pdf>.
Parker, A.H., Smith, J.A., Verdemato, T., Cooke, J., Webster, J. and Carter, R.C. (2014) ‘Menstrual management: a neglected aspect of hygiene interventions’, Disaster Prevention and Management 23(4): 437–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/DPM-04-2013-0070>.
Pillitteri, S.P. (2011) School Menstrual Hygiene Management in Malawi: More than Toilets [pdf], London: WaterAid <www.shareresearch.org/file/2007/download?token=B7mGZ6wc> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Plan International (2015) Menstrual Hygiene, Surrey: Plan International.
Quick, D. (ed.) (2011) Minimum Initial Service Package (MISP) for Reproductive Health in Crisis Situations, 3rd edn, New York: Inter-Agency Working Group on Reproductive Health in Crises <http://misp.iawg.net/> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Research for Health in Humanitarian Crises (R2HC) (2015) ‘Building a cross-sectoral toolkit and research foundation for the integration of menstrual hygiene management into emergency response’ [online], R2HC <www.elrha.org/map-location/irc-menstrual-hygiene-call2/> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Robles, O.J. (2014) I’m Here: Adolescent Girls in Emergencies. Approach and Tools for Improved Response, New York: Women’s Refugee Commission.
Robles, O.J., Bruce, J., Atkinson, H.G., Buscher, D., Scriven, K., Bart, K.K., French, S., Registre, J. and Anderson, A. (2015) ‘Statement and action agenda from the girls in emergencies’, Annals of Global Health 81(3): 331–2 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aogh.2015.08.004>.
Roose, S. and Rankin, T. (2015) ‘Suggested indicators for MHM programming’, [pdf], Plan International <www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/Plan_MHM_Suggested_indicators_September2015.pdf> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Save the Children (2015) Menstrual Hygiene Management: Operational Guidelines [pdf], <www.savethechildren.org/atf/cf/{9def2ebe-10ae-432c-9bd0-df91d2eba74a}/MENSTRUAL_HYGIENE_MANAGEMENT_OPERATIONAL_GUIDELINES.PDF> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Sebastian, A., Hoffmann, V. and Adelman, S. (2013) ‘Menstrual management in low-income countries: needs and trends’, Waterlines 32(2): 135–53 <http://doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2013.015>.
Sommer, M. (2012) ‘Menstrual hygiene management in humanitarian emergencies: gaps and recommendations’, Waterlines 31(1&2): 83–104 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2012.008>.
Sommer, M., Kjellen, M. and Pensulo, C. (2013) ‘Girls’ and women’s needs for menstrual hygiene management (MHM): the interactions between MHM and sanitation systems in low-income countries’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 3(3): 283–97 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2013.101>.
Sommer, M., Ferron, S., Cavill, S. and House, S. (2014) ‘Violence, gender and WASH: spurring action on a complex, under-documented and sensitive topic’, Environment and Urbanization 27(1): 105–16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247814564528>.
Sphere Project (2011) The Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response [online], 3rd edn, Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing <www.spherehandbook.org/> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Sumpter, C. and Torondel, B. (2013) ‘A systematic review of the health and social effects of menstrual hygiene management’, PLoS ONE 8(4): e62004 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062004>.
United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and Save the Children (2009) Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health Toolkit for Humanitarian Settings [pdf], 1st edn, UNFPA and Save the Children <www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/UNFPA_ASRHtoolkit_english.pdf> [accessed 8 June 2016].
United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHCR) (2015) World at War: UNHCR Global Trends Forced Displacement in 2014 [pdf], Geneva: UNHCR <www.unhcr.org/556725e69.pdf> [accessed 8 June 2016].
UNHCR & Save the Children-UK (2002) Note for Implementing and Operational Partners on Sexual Violence and Exploitation: The Experience of Refugee Children in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone [pdf], Geneva: UNHCR <www.savethechildren.org.uk/sites/default/files/docs/sexual_violence_and_exploitation_1.pdf> [accessed 8 June 2016].
WaterAid (2015) Measuring What Matters: Analysis and Proposals for Indicators on Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), London: WaterAid.
White, V., Greene, M. and Murphy, E. (2003) Men and Reproductive Health Programs: Influencing Gender Norms, Washington, DC: The Synergy Project.
Alam, M., Warren, R. and Applebaum, A. (2016) Closing the Gap: Adolescent Girls’ Access to Education in Conflict-Affected Settings [pdf], Washington, DC: Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security <https://giwps.georgetown.edu/sites/giwps/files/closing_the_gap_adolescent_girls_access_to_education_in_conflict-affected_settings.pdf> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Bentzen, C., Kvernmo, J.C., Hadley, E. and Vogel, V. (eds) (2008) Camp Management Toolkit [online], 2nd edn, Oslo: Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC)/The Camp Management Project (CMP) <www.nrc.no/?aid=9177505#.V1glw7srLs0> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Bishop, E., Dunn, J., Gregory, L., Murphy, E., Romero-Amaya, D. and Spector, A. (2014) Sanitary Kit Distribution within NRC Education Programs: Supporting Girls’ Education in Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia and South Sudan, unpublished report, New York.
Burkle, F.M.J., Martone, G. and Greenough, P.G. (2014) ‘The changing face of humanitarian crises’, Brown Journal of World Affairs 20(11): 19–35.
Child Protection Working Group (2012) Minimum Standards for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action [online] <http://cpwg.net/minimum-standards/> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Davoren, S.J. (2012) ‘Helping international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to include a focus on gender-based violence during the emergency phase: lessons learned from Haiti 2010–2011’, Gender & Development 20(2): 281–94 <http://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2012.687224>.
de Lange, R., Lenglet, A., Fesselet, J.F., Gartley, M., Altyev, A. and Fisher, J. (2014) ‘Keeping it simple: a gender-specific sanitation tool for emergencies’, Waterlines 33(1): 45–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2014.006>.
Elo, S. and Kyngäs, H. (2008) ‘The qualitative content analysis process’, Journal of Advanced Nursing 62(1): 107–16 <http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04569.x>.
Ford, N., Mills, E.J., Zachariah, R. and Upshur, R. (2009) ‘Ethics of conducting research in conflict settings’, Conflict and Health 3(7): 1–9 <http://doi.org/10.1186/1752-1505-3-7>.
Gasseer, N. Al, Dresden, E., Keeney, G.B. and Warren, N. (2004) ‘Status of women and infants in complex humanitarian emergencies’, Journal of Midwifery and Women’s Health 49(4): 7–13 <http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmwh.2004.05.001>.
Gosling, L., Irvine, C., Schechtman, L. and Velleman, Y. (2011) Nowhere to Go: How a Lack of Safe Toilets Threatens to Increase Violence against Women in Slums [pdf], London: WaterAid <www.wateraid.org/se/~/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere-to-go.pdf> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Harvey, P. (2005) Cash and Vouchers in Emergencies, Humanitarian Policy Group, London: Overseas Development Institute.
Hayden, T. (2012) Menstrual Hygiene Management in Emergencies: Taking Stock of Support from UNICEF and Partners, New York: UNICEF.
House, S., Mahon, T. and Cavill, S. (2012) Menstrual Hygiene Matters: A Resource for Improving Menstrual Hygiene Around the World, 1st edn, London: WaterAid.
Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) (2010) INEE Minimum Standards for Education: Preparedness, Response, Recovery, 2nd edn, New York: INEE.
INEE Gender Task Team (n.d.) Gender Responsive School Sanitation, Health and Hygiene [pdf], New York <http://toolkit.ineesite.org/toolkit/INEEcms/uploads/1042/Gender_Strategies_in_Emergencies.PDF> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) (2015) Guidelines for Integrating Gender-Based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Action [online], 2nd edn <http://gbvguidelines.org/> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Inter-Agency Working Group on Reproductive Health in Crises (2010) Inter-Agency Field Manual on Reproductive Health in Humanitarian Settings [online], 2nd edn, The Inter-agency Working Group on Reproductive Health in Crises <http://iawg.net/resource/field-manual/> [accessed 8 June 2016].
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) (2013) Operational Research on Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM) Kits for Emergencies, Bwagiriza, Burundi: IFRC.
International Rescue Committee (IRC) Adolescent Girls Initiative (2015) My Safety, My Wellbeing: Equipping Adolescent Girls with Key Knowledge and Skills to Mitigate, Prevent and Respond to Gender Based Violence, Beirut: IRC.
IRC-Myanmar (2014) WASH Cluster Brief: Hygiene Promotion – Menstrual Hygiene Management, Yangon: IRC.
Kjellén, M., Pensulo, C., Nordqvist, P. and Fogde, M. (2011) Global Review of Sanitation System Trends and Interactions with Menstrual Management Practices, Stockholm: Stockholm Environment Institute.
Kovacs, G. and Tatham, P. (2009) ‘Humanitarian logistics performance in the light of gender’, International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management 58(2): 174–87 <http://doi.org/10.1108/17410400910928752>.
Lahiri, S., van Ommeren, M. and Roberts, B. (2016) ‘The influence of humanitarian crises on social functioning among civilians in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review’, Global Public Health 1692(March): 1–18 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2016.1154585>.
Mahon, T. and Fernandes, M. (2010) ‘Menstrual hygiene in South Asia: a neglected issue for WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) programmes’, Gender & Development 18(1): 99–113 <http://doi.org/10.1080/13552071003600083>.
Mahon, T., Tripathy, A. and Singh, N. (2015) ‘Putting the men into menstruation: the role of men and boys in community menstrual hygiene management’, Waterlines 34(1): 7–14 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2015.002>.
Mazurana, D., Benelli, P., Gupta, H. and Walker, P. (2011) Sex and Age Matter: Improving Humanitarian Response in Emergencies, Boston, MA: Feinstein International Center, Tufts University.
Mena, R. (2015) Meeting Gender & MHM in MSF-OCA Health Structures, Loughborough, UK: Loughborough University.
Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) WatSan Working Group (2015) ‘Gender and sanitation tool for displaced people’, MSF <http://hdl.handle.net/10144/311201> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Nawaz, J., Lal, S., Raza, S. and House, S. (2006) ‘Screened toilet, bathing and menstruation units for the earthquake response in NWFP, Pakistan’, in 32nd WEDC International Conference, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 2006, pp. 514–7, Loughborough: WEDC, Loughborough University <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/32/Nawaz.pdf>.
Parker, A.H., Smith, J.A., Verdemato, T., Cooke, J., Webster, J. and Carter, R.C. (2014) ‘Menstrual management: a neglected aspect of hygiene interventions’, Disaster Prevention and Management 23(4): 437–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/DPM-04-2013-0070>.
Pillitteri, S.P. (2011) School Menstrual Hygiene Management in Malawi: More than Toilets [pdf], London: WaterAid <www.shareresearch.org/file/2007/download?token=B7mGZ6wc> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Plan International (2015) Menstrual Hygiene, Surrey: Plan International.
Quick, D. (ed.) (2011) Minimum Initial Service Package (MISP) for Reproductive Health in Crisis Situations, 3rd edn, New York: Inter-Agency Working Group on Reproductive Health in Crises <http://misp.iawg.net/> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Research for Health in Humanitarian Crises (R2HC) (2015) ‘Building a cross-sectoral toolkit and research foundation for the integration of menstrual hygiene management into emergency response’ [online], R2HC <www.elrha.org/map-location/irc-menstrual-hygiene-call2/> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Robles, O.J. (2014) I’m Here: Adolescent Girls in Emergencies. Approach and Tools for Improved Response, New York: Women’s Refugee Commission.
Robles, O.J., Bruce, J., Atkinson, H.G., Buscher, D., Scriven, K., Bart, K.K., French, S., Registre, J. and Anderson, A. (2015) ‘Statement and action agenda from the girls in emergencies’, Annals of Global Health 81(3): 331–2 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aogh.2015.08.004>.
Roose, S. and Rankin, T. (2015) ‘Suggested indicators for MHM programming’, [pdf], Plan International <www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/Plan_MHM_Suggested_indicators_September2015.pdf> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Save the Children (2015) Menstrual Hygiene Management: Operational Guidelines [pdf], <www.savethechildren.org/atf/cf/{9def2ebe-10ae-432c-9bd0-df91d2eba74a}/MENSTRUAL_HYGIENE_MANAGEMENT_OPERATIONAL_GUIDELINES.PDF> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Sebastian, A., Hoffmann, V. and Adelman, S. (2013) ‘Menstrual management in low-income countries: needs and trends’, Waterlines 32(2): 135–53 <http://doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2013.015>.
Sommer, M. (2012) ‘Menstrual hygiene management in humanitarian emergencies: gaps and recommendations’, Waterlines 31(1&2): 83–104 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2012.008>.
Sommer, M., Kjellen, M. and Pensulo, C. (2013) ‘Girls’ and women’s needs for menstrual hygiene management (MHM): the interactions between MHM and sanitation systems in low-income countries’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 3(3): 283–97 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2013.101>.
Sommer, M., Ferron, S., Cavill, S. and House, S. (2014) ‘Violence, gender and WASH: spurring action on a complex, under-documented and sensitive topic’, Environment and Urbanization 27(1): 105–16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247814564528>.
Sphere Project (2011) The Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response [online], 3rd edn, Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing <www.spherehandbook.org/> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Sumpter, C. and Torondel, B. (2013) ‘A systematic review of the health and social effects of menstrual hygiene management’, PLoS ONE 8(4): e62004 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062004>.
United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and Save the Children (2009) Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health Toolkit for Humanitarian Settings [pdf], 1st edn, UNFPA and Save the Children <www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/UNFPA_ASRHtoolkit_english.pdf> [accessed 8 June 2016].
United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHCR) (2015) World at War: UNHCR Global Trends Forced Displacement in 2014 [pdf], Geneva: UNHCR <www.unhcr.org/556725e69.pdf> [accessed 8 June 2016].
UNHCR & Save the Children-UK (2002) Note for Implementing and Operational Partners on Sexual Violence and Exploitation: The Experience of Refugee Children in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone [pdf], Geneva: UNHCR <www.savethechildren.org.uk/sites/default/files/docs/sexual_violence_and_exploitation_1.pdf> [accessed 8 June 2016].
WaterAid (2015) Measuring What Matters: Analysis and Proposals for Indicators on Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), London: WaterAid.
White, V., Greene, M. and Murphy, E. (2003) Men and Reproductive Health Programs: Influencing Gender Norms, Washington, DC: The Synergy Project.
Alam, M., Warren, R. and Applebaum, A. (2016) Closing the Gap: Adolescent Girls’ Access to Education in Conflict-Affected Settings [pdf], Washington, DC: Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security <https://giwps.georgetown.edu/sites/giwps/files/closing_the_gap_adolescent_girls_access_to_education_in_conflict-affected_settings.pdf> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Bentzen, C., Kvernmo, J.C., Hadley, E. and Vogel, V. (eds) (2008) Camp Management Toolkit [online], 2nd edn, Oslo: Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC)/The Camp Management Project (CMP) <www.nrc.no/?aid=9177505#.V1glw7srLs0> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Bishop, E., Dunn, J., Gregory, L., Murphy, E., Romero-Amaya, D. and Spector, A. (2014) Sanitary Kit Distribution within NRC Education Programs: Supporting Girls’ Education in Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia and South Sudan, unpublished report, New York.
Burkle, F.M.J., Martone, G. and Greenough, P.G. (2014) ‘The changing face of humanitarian crises’, Brown Journal of World Affairs 20(11): 19–35.
Child Protection Working Group (2012) Minimum Standards for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action [online] <http://cpwg.net/minimum-standards/> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Davoren, S.J. (2012) ‘Helping international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to include a focus on gender-based violence during the emergency phase: lessons learned from Haiti 2010–2011’, Gender & Development 20(2): 281–94 <http://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2012.687224>.
de Lange, R., Lenglet, A., Fesselet, J.F., Gartley, M., Altyev, A. and Fisher, J. (2014) ‘Keeping it simple: a gender-specific sanitation tool for emergencies’, Waterlines 33(1): 45–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2014.006>.
Elo, S. and Kyngäs, H. (2008) ‘The qualitative content analysis process’, Journal of Advanced Nursing 62(1): 107–16 <http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04569.x>.
Ford, N., Mills, E.J., Zachariah, R. and Upshur, R. (2009) ‘Ethics of conducting research in conflict settings’, Conflict and Health 3(7): 1–9 <http://doi.org/10.1186/1752-1505-3-7>.
Gasseer, N. Al, Dresden, E., Keeney, G.B. and Warren, N. (2004) ‘Status of women and infants in complex humanitarian emergencies’, Journal of Midwifery and Women’s Health 49(4): 7–13 <http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmwh.2004.05.001>.
Gosling, L., Irvine, C., Schechtman, L. and Velleman, Y. (2011) Nowhere to Go: How a Lack of Safe Toilets Threatens to Increase Violence against Women in Slums [pdf], London: WaterAid <www.wateraid.org/se/~/media/Files/Sweden/nowhere-to-go.pdf> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Harvey, P. (2005) Cash and Vouchers in Emergencies, Humanitarian Policy Group, London: Overseas Development Institute.
Hayden, T. (2012) Menstrual Hygiene Management in Emergencies: Taking Stock of Support from UNICEF and Partners, New York: UNICEF.
House, S., Mahon, T. and Cavill, S. (2012) Menstrual Hygiene Matters: A Resource for Improving Menstrual Hygiene Around the World, 1st edn, London: WaterAid.
Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) (2010) INEE Minimum Standards for Education: Preparedness, Response, Recovery, 2nd edn, New York: INEE.
INEE Gender Task Team (n.d.) Gender Responsive School Sanitation, Health and Hygiene [pdf], New York <http://toolkit.ineesite.org/toolkit/INEEcms/uploads/1042/Gender_Strategies_in_Emergencies.PDF> [accessed 8 June 2016].
Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) (2015) Guidelines for Integrating Gender-Based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Action [online], 2nd edn <http://gbvguidelines.org/> [accessed 8 June 2016].
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Sommer, M., Kjellen, M. and Pensulo, C. (2013) ‘Girls’ and women’s needs for menstrual hygiene management (MHM): the interactions between MHM and sanitation systems in low-income countries’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 3(3): 283–97 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2013.101>.
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