The technical performance and user acceptance of a novel on-site sanitation system based on vermifiltration was tested for over 12 months in rural India. Ten households (mean household size = 5.6 people) who had previously practised open defecation trialled a pour flush toilet linked to a vermifilter, together known as a ‘Tiger Toilet’. Technical parameters which were monitored over this period included: usage, temperature, accumulation of faecal matter and vermicompost, presence of worms, and influent and effluent quality. User satisfaction was evaluated relative to a baseline survey and through focus group discussions. The vermifilters processed human waste products effectively in a real life scenario. After 12 months there was little accumulation of faecal solids (0–10 per cent surface coverage) and effluent quality was good (chemical oxygen demand reduction = 57 per cent, faecal coliforms reduction = 99 per cent). Vermicompost accumulation was low and suggested that emptying would only be necessary every five years. User satisfaction levels were high, with 100 per cent of respondents being either very satisfied (60 per cent) or satisfied (40 per cent) with the ‘Tiger Toilet’. The main reasons given were the use of worms and the lack of smells.

Arora, S., Rajpal, A., Kumar, T., Bhargava, R. and Kazmi, A.A. (2014) ‘A comparative study for pathogen removal using different filter media during vermifiltration’, Water, Science and Technology 70(6): 996–1003.

Bowman, D.D., Liotta, J.L., McIntosh, M. and Lucio-Forster, A. (2006) ‘Ascaris suum egg inactivation and destruction by the vermicomposting worm, Eisenia foetida’, Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation 2: 11–18.

British Standards Institution (1983) BS6297; British standard code of practice for design and installation of small scale sewage treatment works and cesspools.

Bureau of Indian Standards (1984) IS 3025: Methods of sampling and test (physical and chemical) for water and wastewater: Part 15 Total residue (total solids-dissolved and suspended), New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards.

Bureau of Indian Standards (2002) IS 15185: Water quality: Detection and enumeration of Escherichia coli and coliform bacteria: Membrane filtration method, New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards.

Bureau of Indian Standards (2006) IS 3025: Methods of sampling and test (physical and chemical) for water and wastewater: Part 58 Chemical oxygen demand (COD), New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards.

Eastman, B.R., Kane, P.N., Edwards, C.A., Trytek, L., Gunadi, B., Stermer, A.L. and Mobley, J.R. (2001) ‘The effectiveness of vermiculture in human pathogen reduction for USEPA biosolids stabilization’, Compost Science & Utilization 9(1): 38–49.

Edwards, C.A., and Arancon, N.Q. (2004) ‘The use of earthworms in the breakdown of organic wastes to produce vermicomposts and animal feed protein’, in C.A. Edwards (ed.), Earthworm Ecology, 2nd edn, pp. 345–438, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Edwards, C.A. and Bohlen, P.J. (1997) Biology and Ecology of Earthworms, London: Chapman and Hall.

Furlong, C., Gibson, W.T., Templeton, M.R., Taillade, M., Kassam, F., Crabb, G., Goodsell, R., McQuilkin, J., Oak, A., Thakar, G., Kodgire, M. and Patankar, R. (2014a) ‘The “tiger toilet”: from concept to reality’, IWA Specialist Conference on Municipal Water Management and Sanitation in Developing Countries, 2–4 October 2014 Bangkok, Thailand.

Furlong, C., Templeton, M.R. and Gibson, W.T. (2014b) ‘Processing of human faeces by wet vermifiltration for improved on-site sanitation’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development. Published June 2014, 4(2): 231–239; DOI: 10.2166/washdev.2014.107

Graham, J.P. and Polizzotto, M.L. (2013) ‘Pit latrines and their impacts on groundwater quality: a systematic review’, Environmental Health Perspectives 121: 521–30.

Hill, G.B., Lalander, C.H. and Baldwin, S.A. (2013) ‘The effectiveness and safety of vermi- versus conventional composting of human feces with Ascaris suum ova as model helminthic parasites’, Journal of Sustainable Development 6(4): 1–10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v6n4p1>.

Kadam, A.M., Nemade, P.D., Oza, G.H. and Shankar, H.S. (2009) ‘Treatment of municipal wastewater using laterite-based constructed soil filter’, Ecological Engineering 35(7), 1051–61.

Kumar, T., Rajpal, A., Bhargava, R. and Prasad, H. (2014) ‘Performance and evaluation of vermifilter at different hydraulic loading using river bed material’, Ecological Engineering 62: 77–82.

Li, Y.S., Xiao, Y.Q., Qiu, J.P., Dai, Y.Q. and Robin, P. (2011) ‘Continuous village sewage treatment by vermifiltration and activated sludge process’, Water Science and Technology 60(11): 3001–10.

Massoud, M.A., Tarhini, A. and Nasr, J.A. (2009) ‘Decentralised approaches to wastewater treatment and management: applicability to developing countries’, Journal of Environmental Management 90: 652–9.

Muspratt, A., Nakato, T., Niwagaba, C., Dione, H., Kang, J., Stupin, L., Regulinski, J., Mbeguere, M. and Strande, L. (2014) ‘Fuel potential for faecal sludge: calorific value results from Uganda, Ghana and Senegal’, Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 4(2): 223.

Ndegwa, P.M., Thompson, S.A. and Das, K.C. (2000) ‘Effects of stocking density and feeding on vermicomposting of biosolids’, Bioresource Technology 71: 5–12.

Parvaresh, A., Movahedian, H. and Hamidian, L. (2004) ‘Vermistabilization of municipal wastewater sludge with Eisenia fetida’, Iranian Journal of Environmental Health Science & Engineering 1(2): 43–50.

Taylor, M., Clarke, W.P. and Greenfield, P.E. (2003) ‘The treatment of domestic wastewater using small-scale vermicompost filter beds’, Ecological Engineering 21(2-3): 197–203.

Thye, Y.P., Templeton, M.R. and Ali, M. (2011) ‘A critical review of technologies for pit latrine emptying in developing countries’, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 41(20): 1793–819 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2010.481593>.

Wang, L., Guo, F., Zheng, Z., Luo, X. and Zhang, J. (2011) ‘Enhancement of rural domestic sewage treatment performance, and assessment of microbial community diversity and structure using tower vermifiltration’, Bioresource Technology 102: 9462–70.

Xing, M.Y., Li, X.W. and Yang, J.A. (2010) ‘Treatment performance of small-scale vermifilter for domestic wastewater and its relationship to earthworm growth, reproduction and enzymatic activity’, African Journal of Biotechnology 9(44): 7513–20.

Xing, M.Y., Yang, J.A., Wang, Y.Y., Liu, J. and Yu, F. (2011) ‘A comparative study of synchronous treatment of sewage and sludge by two vermifiltrations using an epigeic earthworm Eisenia fetida’, Journal of Hazardous Materials 185(2–3): 881–8.

Xing, M., Zhao, C., Yang, J. and Lv, B. (2014) ‘Feeding behaviour and trophic levels of earthworms and other predators in vermifiltration system for liquid-state sludge stabilisation using fatty acid profiles’, Bioresource Technology 169: 149–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.06.083>.

Yadav, K.D., Tare, V. and Ahammed, M.M. (2010) ‘Vermicomposting of source-separated human faeces for nutrient recycling’, Waste Management 30(1): 50–6.

Yadav, K.D., Tare, V. and Ahammed, M.M. (2011) ‘Vermicomposting of source-separated human faeces by Eisenia fetida: effect of stocking density on feed consumption rate, growth characteristics and vermicompost production’, Waste Management 31(6): 1162–8.

Zhao, L.M., Wang, Y.Y., Yang, J., Xing, M.Y., Li, X.W., Yi, D.H. and Deng, D.H. (2010) ‘Earthworm microorganism interactions: a strategy to stabilize domestic wastewater sludge’, Water Research 44: 2572–82.

Zhao, C., Xing, M., Yang, J., Lu, Y. and Lv, B. (2014) ‘Microbial community structure and metabolic property of biofilms in vermifiltration for liquid-state sludge stabilisation using PLFA profiles’, Bioresource Technology 151: 340–6.

Arora, S., Rajpal, A., Kumar, T., Bhargava, R. and Kazmi, A.A. (2014) ‘A comparative study for pathogen removal using different filter media during vermifiltration’, Water, Science and Technology 70(6): 996–1003.

Bowman, D.D., Liotta, J.L., McIntosh, M. and Lucio-Forster, A. (2006) ‘Ascaris suum egg inactivation and destruction by the vermicomposting worm, Eisenia foetida’, Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation 2: 11–18.

British Standards Institution (1983) BS6297; British standard code of practice for design and installation of small scale sewage treatment works and cesspools.

Bureau of Indian Standards (1984) IS 3025: Methods of sampling and test (physical and chemical) for water and wastewater: Part 15 Total residue (total solids-dissolved and suspended), New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards.

Bureau of Indian Standards (2002) IS 15185: Water quality: Detection and enumeration of Escherichia coli and coliform bacteria: Membrane filtration method, New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards.

Bureau of Indian Standards (2006) IS 3025: Methods of sampling and test (physical and chemical) for water and wastewater: Part 58 Chemical oxygen demand (COD), New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards.

Eastman, B.R., Kane, P.N., Edwards, C.A., Trytek, L., Gunadi, B., Stermer, A.L. and Mobley, J.R. (2001) ‘The effectiveness of vermiculture in human pathogen reduction for USEPA biosolids stabilization’, Compost Science & Utilization 9(1): 38–49.

Edwards, C.A., and Arancon, N.Q. (2004) ‘The use of earthworms in the breakdown of organic wastes to produce vermicomposts and animal feed protein’, in C.A. Edwards (ed.), Earthworm Ecology, 2nd edn, pp. 345–438, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Edwards, C.A. and Bohlen, P.J. (1997) Biology and Ecology of Earthworms, London: Chapman and Hall.

Furlong, C., Gibson, W.T., Templeton, M.R., Taillade, M., Kassam, F., Crabb, G., Goodsell, R., McQuilkin, J., Oak, A., Thakar, G., Kodgire, M. and Patankar, R. (2014a) ‘The “tiger toilet”: from concept to reality’, IWA Specialist Conference on Municipal Water Management and Sanitation in Developing Countries, 2–4 October 2014 Bangkok, Thailand.

Furlong, C., Templeton, M.R. and Gibson, W.T. (2014b) ‘Processing of human faeces by wet vermifiltration for improved on-site sanitation’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development. Published June 2014, 4(2): 231–239; DOI: 10.2166/washdev.2014.107

Graham, J.P. and Polizzotto, M.L. (2013) ‘Pit latrines and their impacts on groundwater quality: a systematic review’, Environmental Health Perspectives 121: 521–30.

Hill, G.B., Lalander, C.H. and Baldwin, S.A. (2013) ‘The effectiveness and safety of vermi- versus conventional composting of human feces with Ascaris suum ova as model helminthic parasites’, Journal of Sustainable Development 6(4): 1–10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v6n4p1>.

Kadam, A.M., Nemade, P.D., Oza, G.H. and Shankar, H.S. (2009) ‘Treatment of municipal wastewater using laterite-based constructed soil filter’, Ecological Engineering 35(7), 1051–61.

Kumar, T., Rajpal, A., Bhargava, R. and Prasad, H. (2014) ‘Performance and evaluation of vermifilter at different hydraulic loading using river bed material’, Ecological Engineering 62: 77–82.

Li, Y.S., Xiao, Y.Q., Qiu, J.P., Dai, Y.Q. and Robin, P. (2011) ‘Continuous village sewage treatment by vermifiltration and activated sludge process’, Water Science and Technology 60(11): 3001–10.

Massoud, M.A., Tarhini, A. and Nasr, J.A. (2009) ‘Decentralised approaches to wastewater treatment and management: applicability to developing countries’, Journal of Environmental Management 90: 652–9.

Muspratt, A., Nakato, T., Niwagaba, C., Dione, H., Kang, J., Stupin, L., Regulinski, J., Mbeguere, M. and Strande, L. (2014) ‘Fuel potential for faecal sludge: calorific value results from Uganda, Ghana and Senegal’, Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 4(2): 223.

Ndegwa, P.M., Thompson, S.A. and Das, K.C. (2000) ‘Effects of stocking density and feeding on vermicomposting of biosolids’, Bioresource Technology 71: 5–12.

Parvaresh, A., Movahedian, H. and Hamidian, L. (2004) ‘Vermistabilization of municipal wastewater sludge with Eisenia fetida’, Iranian Journal of Environmental Health Science & Engineering 1(2): 43–50.

Taylor, M., Clarke, W.P. and Greenfield, P.E. (2003) ‘The treatment of domestic wastewater using small-scale vermicompost filter beds’, Ecological Engineering 21(2-3): 197–203.

Thye, Y.P., Templeton, M.R. and Ali, M. (2011) ‘A critical review of technologies for pit latrine emptying in developing countries’, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 41(20): 1793–819 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2010.481593>.

Wang, L., Guo, F., Zheng, Z., Luo, X. and Zhang, J. (2011) ‘Enhancement of rural domestic sewage treatment performance, and assessment of microbial community diversity and structure using tower vermifiltration’, Bioresource Technology 102: 9462–70.

Xing, M.Y., Li, X.W. and Yang, J.A. (2010) ‘Treatment performance of small-scale vermifilter for domestic wastewater and its relationship to earthworm growth, reproduction and enzymatic activity’, African Journal of Biotechnology 9(44): 7513–20.

Xing, M.Y., Yang, J.A., Wang, Y.Y., Liu, J. and Yu, F. (2011) ‘A comparative study of synchronous treatment of sewage and sludge by two vermifiltrations using an epigeic earthworm Eisenia fetida’, Journal of Hazardous Materials 185(2–3): 881–8.

Xing, M., Zhao, C., Yang, J. and Lv, B. (2014) ‘Feeding behaviour and trophic levels of earthworms and other predators in vermifiltration system for liquid-state sludge stabilisation using fatty acid profiles’, Bioresource Technology 169: 149–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.06.083>.

Yadav, K.D., Tare, V. and Ahammed, M.M. (2010) ‘Vermicomposting of source-separated human faeces for nutrient recycling’, Waste Management 30(1): 50–6.

Yadav, K.D., Tare, V. and Ahammed, M.M. (2011) ‘Vermicomposting of source-separated human faeces by Eisenia fetida: effect of stocking density on feed consumption rate, growth characteristics and vermicompost production’, Waste Management 31(6): 1162–8.

Zhao, L.M., Wang, Y.Y., Yang, J., Xing, M.Y., Li, X.W., Yi, D.H. and Deng, D.H. (2010) ‘Earthworm microorganism interactions: a strategy to stabilize domestic wastewater sludge’, Water Research 44: 2572–82.

Zhao, C., Xing, M., Yang, J., Lu, Y. and Lv, B. (2014) ‘Microbial community structure and metabolic property of biofilms in vermifiltration for liquid-state sludge stabilisation using PLFA profiles’, Bioresource Technology 151: 340–6.

Arora, S., Rajpal, A., Kumar, T., Bhargava, R. and Kazmi, A.A. (2014) ‘A comparative study for pathogen removal using different filter media during vermifiltration’, Water, Science and Technology 70(6): 996–1003.

Bowman, D.D., Liotta, J.L., McIntosh, M. and Lucio-Forster, A. (2006) ‘Ascaris suum egg inactivation and destruction by the vermicomposting worm, Eisenia foetida’, Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation 2: 11–18.

British Standards Institution (1983) BS6297; British standard code of practice for design and installation of small scale sewage treatment works and cesspools.

Bureau of Indian Standards (1984) IS 3025: Methods of sampling and test (physical and chemical) for water and wastewater: Part 15 Total residue (total solids-dissolved and suspended), New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards.

Bureau of Indian Standards (2002) IS 15185: Water quality: Detection and enumeration of Escherichia coli and coliform bacteria: Membrane filtration method, New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards.

Bureau of Indian Standards (2006) IS 3025: Methods of sampling and test (physical and chemical) for water and wastewater: Part 58 Chemical oxygen demand (COD), New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards.

Eastman, B.R., Kane, P.N., Edwards, C.A., Trytek, L., Gunadi, B., Stermer, A.L. and Mobley, J.R. (2001) ‘The effectiveness of vermiculture in human pathogen reduction for USEPA biosolids stabilization’, Compost Science & Utilization 9(1): 38–49.

Edwards, C.A., and Arancon, N.Q. (2004) ‘The use of earthworms in the breakdown of organic wastes to produce vermicomposts and animal feed protein’, in C.A. Edwards (ed.), Earthworm Ecology, 2nd edn, pp. 345–438, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Edwards, C.A. and Bohlen, P.J. (1997) Biology and Ecology of Earthworms, London: Chapman and Hall.

Furlong, C., Gibson, W.T., Templeton, M.R., Taillade, M., Kassam, F., Crabb, G., Goodsell, R., McQuilkin, J., Oak, A., Thakar, G., Kodgire, M. and Patankar, R. (2014a) ‘The “tiger toilet”: from concept to reality’, IWA Specialist Conference on Municipal Water Management and Sanitation in Developing Countries, 2–4 October 2014 Bangkok, Thailand.

Furlong, C., Templeton, M.R. and Gibson, W.T. (2014b) ‘Processing of human faeces by wet vermifiltration for improved on-site sanitation’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development. Published June 2014, 4(2): 231–239; DOI: 10.2166/washdev.2014.107

Graham, J.P. and Polizzotto, M.L. (2013) ‘Pit latrines and their impacts on groundwater quality: a systematic review’, Environmental Health Perspectives 121: 521–30.

Hill, G.B., Lalander, C.H. and Baldwin, S.A. (2013) ‘The effectiveness and safety of vermi- versus conventional composting of human feces with Ascaris suum ova as model helminthic parasites’, Journal of Sustainable Development 6(4): 1–10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v6n4p1>.

Kadam, A.M., Nemade, P.D., Oza, G.H. and Shankar, H.S. (2009) ‘Treatment of municipal wastewater using laterite-based constructed soil filter’, Ecological Engineering 35(7), 1051–61.

Kumar, T., Rajpal, A., Bhargava, R. and Prasad, H. (2014) ‘Performance and evaluation of vermifilter at different hydraulic loading using river bed material’, Ecological Engineering 62: 77–82.

Li, Y.S., Xiao, Y.Q., Qiu, J.P., Dai, Y.Q. and Robin, P. (2011) ‘Continuous village sewage treatment by vermifiltration and activated sludge process’, Water Science and Technology 60(11): 3001–10.

Massoud, M.A., Tarhini, A. and Nasr, J.A. (2009) ‘Decentralised approaches to wastewater treatment and management: applicability to developing countries’, Journal of Environmental Management 90: 652–9.

Muspratt, A., Nakato, T., Niwagaba, C., Dione, H., Kang, J., Stupin, L., Regulinski, J., Mbeguere, M. and Strande, L. (2014) ‘Fuel potential for faecal sludge: calorific value results from Uganda, Ghana and Senegal’, Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 4(2): 223.

Ndegwa, P.M., Thompson, S.A. and Das, K.C. (2000) ‘Effects of stocking density and feeding on vermicomposting of biosolids’, Bioresource Technology 71: 5–12.

Parvaresh, A., Movahedian, H. and Hamidian, L. (2004) ‘Vermistabilization of municipal wastewater sludge with Eisenia fetida’, Iranian Journal of Environmental Health Science & Engineering 1(2): 43–50.

Taylor, M., Clarke, W.P. and Greenfield, P.E. (2003) ‘The treatment of domestic wastewater using small-scale vermicompost filter beds’, Ecological Engineering 21(2-3): 197–203.

Thye, Y.P., Templeton, M.R. and Ali, M. (2011) ‘A critical review of technologies for pit latrine emptying in developing countries’, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 41(20): 1793–819 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2010.481593>.

Wang, L., Guo, F., Zheng, Z., Luo, X. and Zhang, J. (2011) ‘Enhancement of rural domestic sewage treatment performance, and assessment of microbial community diversity and structure using tower vermifiltration’, Bioresource Technology 102: 9462–70.

Xing, M.Y., Li, X.W. and Yang, J.A. (2010) ‘Treatment performance of small-scale vermifilter for domestic wastewater and its relationship to earthworm growth, reproduction and enzymatic activity’, African Journal of Biotechnology 9(44): 7513–20.

Xing, M.Y., Yang, J.A., Wang, Y.Y., Liu, J. and Yu, F. (2011) ‘A comparative study of synchronous treatment of sewage and sludge by two vermifiltrations using an epigeic earthworm Eisenia fetida’, Journal of Hazardous Materials 185(2–3): 881–8.

Xing, M., Zhao, C., Yang, J. and Lv, B. (2014) ‘Feeding behaviour and trophic levels of earthworms and other predators in vermifiltration system for liquid-state sludge stabilisation using fatty acid profiles’, Bioresource Technology 169: 149–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.06.083>.

Yadav, K.D., Tare, V. and Ahammed, M.M. (2010) ‘Vermicomposting of source-separated human faeces for nutrient recycling’, Waste Management 30(1): 50–6.

Yadav, K.D., Tare, V. and Ahammed, M.M. (2011) ‘Vermicomposting of source-separated human faeces by Eisenia fetida: effect of stocking density on feed consumption rate, growth characteristics and vermicompost production’, Waste Management 31(6): 1162–8.

Zhao, L.M., Wang, Y.Y., Yang, J., Xing, M.Y., Li, X.W., Yi, D.H. and Deng, D.H. (2010) ‘Earthworm microorganism interactions: a strategy to stabilize domestic wastewater sludge’, Water Research 44: 2572–82.

Zhao, C., Xing, M., Yang, J., Lu, Y. and Lv, B. (2014) ‘Microbial community structure and metabolic property of biofilms in vermifiltration for liquid-state sludge stabilisation using PLFA profiles’, Bioresource Technology 151: 340–6.

Arora, S., Rajpal, A., Kumar, T., Bhargava, R. and Kazmi, A.A. (2014) ‘A comparative study for pathogen removal using different filter media during vermifiltration’, Water, Science and Technology 70(6): 996–1003.

Bowman, D.D., Liotta, J.L., McIntosh, M. and Lucio-Forster, A. (2006) ‘Ascaris suum egg inactivation and destruction by the vermicomposting worm, Eisenia foetida’, Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation 2: 11–18.

British Standards Institution (1983) BS6297; British standard code of practice for design and installation of small scale sewage treatment works and cesspools.

Bureau of Indian Standards (1984) IS 3025: Methods of sampling and test (physical and chemical) for water and wastewater: Part 15 Total residue (total solids-dissolved and suspended), New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards.

Bureau of Indian Standards (2002) IS 15185: Water quality: Detection and enumeration of Escherichia coli and coliform bacteria: Membrane filtration method, New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards.

Bureau of Indian Standards (2006) IS 3025: Methods of sampling and test (physical and chemical) for water and wastewater: Part 58 Chemical oxygen demand (COD), New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards.

Eastman, B.R., Kane, P.N., Edwards, C.A., Trytek, L., Gunadi, B., Stermer, A.L. and Mobley, J.R. (2001) ‘The effectiveness of vermiculture in human pathogen reduction for USEPA biosolids stabilization’, Compost Science & Utilization 9(1): 38–49.

Edwards, C.A., and Arancon, N.Q. (2004) ‘The use of earthworms in the breakdown of organic wastes to produce vermicomposts and animal feed protein’, in C.A. Edwards (ed.), Earthworm Ecology, 2nd edn, pp. 345–438, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Edwards, C.A. and Bohlen, P.J. (1997) Biology and Ecology of Earthworms, London: Chapman and Hall.

Furlong, C., Gibson, W.T., Templeton, M.R., Taillade, M., Kassam, F., Crabb, G., Goodsell, R., McQuilkin, J., Oak, A., Thakar, G., Kodgire, M. and Patankar, R. (2014a) ‘The “tiger toilet”: from concept to reality’, IWA Specialist Conference on Municipal Water Management and Sanitation in Developing Countries, 2–4 October 2014 Bangkok, Thailand.

Furlong, C., Templeton, M.R. and Gibson, W.T. (2014b) ‘Processing of human faeces by wet vermifiltration for improved on-site sanitation’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development. Published June 2014, 4(2): 231–239; DOI: 10.2166/washdev.2014.107

Graham, J.P. and Polizzotto, M.L. (2013) ‘Pit latrines and their impacts on groundwater quality: a systematic review’, Environmental Health Perspectives 121: 521–30.

Hill, G.B., Lalander, C.H. and Baldwin, S.A. (2013) ‘The effectiveness and safety of vermi- versus conventional composting of human feces with Ascaris suum ova as model helminthic parasites’, Journal of Sustainable Development 6(4): 1–10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v6n4p1>.

Kadam, A.M., Nemade, P.D., Oza, G.H. and Shankar, H.S. (2009) ‘Treatment of municipal wastewater using laterite-based constructed soil filter’, Ecological Engineering 35(7), 1051–61.

Kumar, T., Rajpal, A., Bhargava, R. and Prasad, H. (2014) ‘Performance and evaluation of vermifilter at different hydraulic loading using river bed material’, Ecological Engineering 62: 77–82.

Li, Y.S., Xiao, Y.Q., Qiu, J.P., Dai, Y.Q. and Robin, P. (2011) ‘Continuous village sewage treatment by vermifiltration and activated sludge process’, Water Science and Technology 60(11): 3001–10.

Massoud, M.A., Tarhini, A. and Nasr, J.A. (2009) ‘Decentralised approaches to wastewater treatment and management: applicability to developing countries’, Journal of Environmental Management 90: 652–9.

Muspratt, A., Nakato, T., Niwagaba, C., Dione, H., Kang, J., Stupin, L., Regulinski, J., Mbeguere, M. and Strande, L. (2014) ‘Fuel potential for faecal sludge: calorific value results from Uganda, Ghana and Senegal’, Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 4(2): 223.

Ndegwa, P.M., Thompson, S.A. and Das, K.C. (2000) ‘Effects of stocking density and feeding on vermicomposting of biosolids’, Bioresource Technology 71: 5–12.

Parvaresh, A., Movahedian, H. and Hamidian, L. (2004) ‘Vermistabilization of municipal wastewater sludge with Eisenia fetida’, Iranian Journal of Environmental Health Science & Engineering 1(2): 43–50.

Taylor, M., Clarke, W.P. and Greenfield, P.E. (2003) ‘The treatment of domestic wastewater using small-scale vermicompost filter beds’, Ecological Engineering 21(2-3): 197–203.

Thye, Y.P., Templeton, M.R. and Ali, M. (2011) ‘A critical review of technologies for pit latrine emptying in developing countries’, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 41(20): 1793–819 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2010.481593>.

Wang, L., Guo, F., Zheng, Z., Luo, X. and Zhang, J. (2011) ‘Enhancement of rural domestic sewage treatment performance, and assessment of microbial community diversity and structure using tower vermifiltration’, Bioresource Technology 102: 9462–70.

Xing, M.Y., Li, X.W. and Yang, J.A. (2010) ‘Treatment performance of small-scale vermifilter for domestic wastewater and its relationship to earthworm growth, reproduction and enzymatic activity’, African Journal of Biotechnology 9(44): 7513–20.

Xing, M.Y., Yang, J.A., Wang, Y.Y., Liu, J. and Yu, F. (2011) ‘A comparative study of synchronous treatment of sewage and sludge by two vermifiltrations using an epigeic earthworm Eisenia fetida’, Journal of Hazardous Materials 185(2–3): 881–8.

Xing, M., Zhao, C., Yang, J. and Lv, B. (2014) ‘Feeding behaviour and trophic levels of earthworms and other predators in vermifiltration system for liquid-state sludge stabilisation using fatty acid profiles’, Bioresource Technology 169: 149–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.06.083>.

Yadav, K.D., Tare, V. and Ahammed, M.M. (2010) ‘Vermicomposting of source-separated human faeces for nutrient recycling’, Waste Management 30(1): 50–6.

Yadav, K.D., Tare, V. and Ahammed, M.M. (2011) ‘Vermicomposting of source-separated human faeces by Eisenia fetida: effect of stocking density on feed consumption rate, growth characteristics and vermicompost production’, Waste Management 31(6): 1162–8.

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