Beyond ‘functionality’ of handpump-supplied rural water services in developing countries
Many rural point-water sources in developing countries consist of wells or boreholes equipped with handpumps. Various estimates have been made of the functionality of such water points, and functionality is now routinely monitored in national and local surveys of service performance. We argue, however, that a single binary (functional/non-functional) indicator is crude and insufficient to provide much information about service sustainability. We set out a categorization of functionality which includes three sub-categories of functional water points and five non-functional sub-categories, with well/handpump water points in mind. We use a simple model to demonstrate that reduction of high rates of early post-construction abandonment and reduction of total downtimes would greatly improve service performance. We show that functionality levels for multi-age populations of wells or boreholes equipped with handpumps would not normally be expected to exceed about 85 per cent. We recommend going beyond functionality monitoring via the collection of quantitative data on rates of abandonment, frequency and duration of breakdown, combined with descriptive narratives of actions to manage and repair water points, in order to generate more nuanced understanding of service performance.Abrams, L., Palmer, I. and Hart, T. (no date) ‘Sustainability management guidelines for water supply in developing communities’, South Africa: Department of Water Affairs and Forestry <http://www.africanwater.org/Documents/Sustainability%20_Management_Guidelines.PDF>.
Adank, M., Kumasi, T.C., Chimbar, T.L., Atengdem, J., Agbemor, B.D., Dickinson, N. and Abbey, E. (2014) ‘The state of handpump water services in Ghana: findings from three districts’, 37th WEDC International Conference, Hanoi, Vietnam, <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/37/Adank-1976.pdf>.
Arlosoroff, S., Tschannerl, G., Grey, D., Journey, W., Karp, A., Langenegger, O. and Roche, R. (1987) Community Water Supply: The Handpump Option, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Carter, R.C., Tyrrel, S.F. and Howsam, P. (1996) ‘Strategies for handpump water supply programmes in less developed countries’, Journal of the Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management, 10 (2): 130–36 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1996.tb00022.x>
Chilton, J. (2015) The Hidden Crisis project [online] <https://vimeo.com/114133055> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Curtis, V. (1986) ‘Women and the transport of water’, Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing.
Driscoll, F. (1986) Groundwater and Wells, 2nd edn, St Paul, MN: Johnson Division.
Duti, V. (2012) ‘Tracking functionality for sustainability’, presented at the 2011 Annual Review Conference of the Community Water and Sanitation Agency, Kumasi, Ghana <http://www.waterservicesthatlast.org/media/publications/tracking_functionality_for_sustainability> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Foster, T. (2013) ‘Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda’, Environmental Science & Technology, 47 (21): 12037–46. <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es402086n>.
Hunter, P.R., MacDonald, A.M. and Carter, R.C. (2010) ‘Water supply and health’, PLoS Medicine 7 (11): e1000361 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000361>.
Improve International (2015) ‘Statistics on water point failures’ [online] <https://improveinternational.wordpress.com/handy-resources/sad-stats/> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) (2009) ‘Handpump data 2009: selected countries in Sub-Saharan Africa’ [online] <http://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/203> [accessed 29 August 2015].
RWSN (2015) ‘Smart handpumps: handpumps can be better – who is leading the way?’ [online] <http://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/projekts/details/78> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Tincani, L., Ross, I., Mujica, A. and Zaman, R. (forthcoming) ‘Regional Assessment of operational sustainability of rural WASH services’, Oxford: Oxford Policy Management.
UPGro (no date, a) ‘Hidden crisis: strengthening the evidence base on the sustainability of rural groundwater services’ [online] <http://upgro.org/catalyst-projects/hidden-crisis1/> [accessed 29 August 2015].
UPGro (no date, b) ‘Hidden crisis: unravelling current failures for future success in rural groundwater supply’ [online] <http://upgro.org/consortium/hidden-crisis2/> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Walters, J.P. and Javernick-Will, A.N. (2015) ‘Long-term functionality of rural water services in developing countries: a system dynamics approach to understanding the dynamic interaction of factors’, Environmental Science & Technology, 49: 5035–43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es505975h>.
World Health Organization (WHO) (1983) ‘Minimum evaluation procedure for water supply and sanitation projects’, Geneva: WHO <http://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/61594>.
All accessed 8 September 2015
Improve International <www.improveinternational.com>
Triple-S, IRC <http://www.waterservicesthatlast.org/>
UPGro <www.upgro.org>
VFM-WASH <www.vfm-wash.org>
WASHCost, IRC <http://www.ircwash.org/washcost>
Water Point Data Exchange <http://www.waterpointdata.org>
Abrams, L., Palmer, I. and Hart, T. (no date) ‘Sustainability management guidelines for water supply in developing communities’, South Africa: Department of Water Affairs and Forestry <http://www.africanwater.org/Documents/Sustainability%20_Management_Guidelines.PDF>.
Adank, M., Kumasi, T.C., Chimbar, T.L., Atengdem, J., Agbemor, B.D., Dickinson, N. and Abbey, E. (2014) ‘The state of handpump water services in Ghana: findings from three districts’, 37th WEDC International Conference, Hanoi, Vietnam, <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/37/Adank-1976.pdf>.
Arlosoroff, S., Tschannerl, G., Grey, D., Journey, W., Karp, A., Langenegger, O. and Roche, R. (1987) Community Water Supply: The Handpump Option, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Carter, R.C., Tyrrel, S.F. and Howsam, P. (1996) ‘Strategies for handpump water supply programmes in less developed countries’, Journal of the Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management, 10 (2): 130–36 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1996.tb00022.x>
Chilton, J. (2015) The Hidden Crisis project [online] <https://vimeo.com/114133055> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Curtis, V. (1986) ‘Women and the transport of water’, Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing.
Driscoll, F. (1986) Groundwater and Wells, 2nd edn, St Paul, MN: Johnson Division.
Duti, V. (2012) ‘Tracking functionality for sustainability’, presented at the 2011 Annual Review Conference of the Community Water and Sanitation Agency, Kumasi, Ghana <http://www.waterservicesthatlast.org/media/publications/tracking_functionality_for_sustainability> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Foster, T. (2013) ‘Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda’, Environmental Science & Technology, 47 (21): 12037–46. <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es402086n>.
Hunter, P.R., MacDonald, A.M. and Carter, R.C. (2010) ‘Water supply and health’, PLoS Medicine 7 (11): e1000361 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000361>.
Improve International (2015) ‘Statistics on water point failures’ [online] <https://improveinternational.wordpress.com/handy-resources/sad-stats/> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) (2009) ‘Handpump data 2009: selected countries in Sub-Saharan Africa’ [online] <http://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/203> [accessed 29 August 2015].
RWSN (2015) ‘Smart handpumps: handpumps can be better – who is leading the way?’ [online] <http://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/projekts/details/78> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Tincani, L., Ross, I., Mujica, A. and Zaman, R. (forthcoming) ‘Regional Assessment of operational sustainability of rural WASH services’, Oxford: Oxford Policy Management.
UPGro (no date, a) ‘Hidden crisis: strengthening the evidence base on the sustainability of rural groundwater services’ [online] <http://upgro.org/catalyst-projects/hidden-crisis1/> [accessed 29 August 2015].
UPGro (no date, b) ‘Hidden crisis: unravelling current failures for future success in rural groundwater supply’ [online] <http://upgro.org/consortium/hidden-crisis2/> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Walters, J.P. and Javernick-Will, A.N. (2015) ‘Long-term functionality of rural water services in developing countries: a system dynamics approach to understanding the dynamic interaction of factors’, Environmental Science & Technology, 49: 5035–43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es505975h>.
World Health Organization (WHO) (1983) ‘Minimum evaluation procedure for water supply and sanitation projects’, Geneva: WHO <http://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/61594>.
All accessed 8 September 2015
Improve International <www.improveinternational.com>
Triple-S, IRC <http://www.waterservicesthatlast.org/>
UPGro <www.upgro.org>
VFM-WASH <www.vfm-wash.org>
WASHCost, IRC <http://www.ircwash.org/washcost>
Water Point Data Exchange <http://www.waterpointdata.org>
Abrams, L., Palmer, I. and Hart, T. (no date) ‘Sustainability management guidelines for water supply in developing communities’, South Africa: Department of Water Affairs and Forestry <http://www.africanwater.org/Documents/Sustainability%20_Management_Guidelines.PDF>.
Adank, M., Kumasi, T.C., Chimbar, T.L., Atengdem, J., Agbemor, B.D., Dickinson, N. and Abbey, E. (2014) ‘The state of handpump water services in Ghana: findings from three districts’, 37th WEDC International Conference, Hanoi, Vietnam, <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/37/Adank-1976.pdf>.
Arlosoroff, S., Tschannerl, G., Grey, D., Journey, W., Karp, A., Langenegger, O. and Roche, R. (1987) Community Water Supply: The Handpump Option, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Carter, R.C., Tyrrel, S.F. and Howsam, P. (1996) ‘Strategies for handpump water supply programmes in less developed countries’, Journal of the Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management, 10 (2): 130–36 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1996.tb00022.x>
Chilton, J. (2015) The Hidden Crisis project [online] <https://vimeo.com/114133055> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Curtis, V. (1986) ‘Women and the transport of water’, Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing.
Driscoll, F. (1986) Groundwater and Wells, 2nd edn, St Paul, MN: Johnson Division.
Duti, V. (2012) ‘Tracking functionality for sustainability’, presented at the 2011 Annual Review Conference of the Community Water and Sanitation Agency, Kumasi, Ghana <http://www.waterservicesthatlast.org/media/publications/tracking_functionality_for_sustainability> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Foster, T. (2013) ‘Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda’, Environmental Science & Technology, 47 (21): 12037–46. <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es402086n>.
Hunter, P.R., MacDonald, A.M. and Carter, R.C. (2010) ‘Water supply and health’, PLoS Medicine 7 (11): e1000361 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000361>.
Improve International (2015) ‘Statistics on water point failures’ [online] <https://improveinternational.wordpress.com/handy-resources/sad-stats/> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) (2009) ‘Handpump data 2009: selected countries in Sub-Saharan Africa’ [online] <http://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/203> [accessed 29 August 2015].
RWSN (2015) ‘Smart handpumps: handpumps can be better – who is leading the way?’ [online] <http://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/projekts/details/78> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Tincani, L., Ross, I., Mujica, A. and Zaman, R. (forthcoming) ‘Regional Assessment of operational sustainability of rural WASH services’, Oxford: Oxford Policy Management.
UPGro (no date, a) ‘Hidden crisis: strengthening the evidence base on the sustainability of rural groundwater services’ [online] <http://upgro.org/catalyst-projects/hidden-crisis1/> [accessed 29 August 2015].
UPGro (no date, b) ‘Hidden crisis: unravelling current failures for future success in rural groundwater supply’ [online] <http://upgro.org/consortium/hidden-crisis2/> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Walters, J.P. and Javernick-Will, A.N. (2015) ‘Long-term functionality of rural water services in developing countries: a system dynamics approach to understanding the dynamic interaction of factors’, Environmental Science & Technology, 49: 5035–43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es505975h>.
World Health Organization (WHO) (1983) ‘Minimum evaluation procedure for water supply and sanitation projects’, Geneva: WHO <http://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/61594>.
All accessed 8 September 2015
Improve International <www.improveinternational.com>
Triple-S, IRC <http://www.waterservicesthatlast.org/>
UPGro <www.upgro.org>
VFM-WASH <www.vfm-wash.org>
WASHCost, IRC <http://www.ircwash.org/washcost>
Water Point Data Exchange <http://www.waterpointdata.org>
Abrams, L., Palmer, I. and Hart, T. (no date) ‘Sustainability management guidelines for water supply in developing communities’, South Africa: Department of Water Affairs and Forestry <http://www.africanwater.org/Documents/Sustainability%20_Management_Guidelines.PDF>.
Adank, M., Kumasi, T.C., Chimbar, T.L., Atengdem, J., Agbemor, B.D., Dickinson, N. and Abbey, E. (2014) ‘The state of handpump water services in Ghana: findings from three districts’, 37th WEDC International Conference, Hanoi, Vietnam, <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/37/Adank-1976.pdf>.
Arlosoroff, S., Tschannerl, G., Grey, D., Journey, W., Karp, A., Langenegger, O. and Roche, R. (1987) Community Water Supply: The Handpump Option, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Carter, R.C., Tyrrel, S.F. and Howsam, P. (1996) ‘Strategies for handpump water supply programmes in less developed countries’, Journal of the Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management, 10 (2): 130–36 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1996.tb00022.x>
Chilton, J. (2015) The Hidden Crisis project [online] <https://vimeo.com/114133055> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Curtis, V. (1986) ‘Women and the transport of water’, Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing.
Driscoll, F. (1986) Groundwater and Wells, 2nd edn, St Paul, MN: Johnson Division.
Duti, V. (2012) ‘Tracking functionality for sustainability’, presented at the 2011 Annual Review Conference of the Community Water and Sanitation Agency, Kumasi, Ghana <http://www.waterservicesthatlast.org/media/publications/tracking_functionality_for_sustainability> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Foster, T. (2013) ‘Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda’, Environmental Science & Technology, 47 (21): 12037–46. <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es402086n>.
Hunter, P.R., MacDonald, A.M. and Carter, R.C. (2010) ‘Water supply and health’, PLoS Medicine 7 (11): e1000361 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000361>.
Improve International (2015) ‘Statistics on water point failures’ [online] <https://improveinternational.wordpress.com/handy-resources/sad-stats/> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) (2009) ‘Handpump data 2009: selected countries in Sub-Saharan Africa’ [online] <http://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/203> [accessed 29 August 2015].
RWSN (2015) ‘Smart handpumps: handpumps can be better – who is leading the way?’ [online] <http://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/projekts/details/78> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Tincani, L., Ross, I., Mujica, A. and Zaman, R. (forthcoming) ‘Regional Assessment of operational sustainability of rural WASH services’, Oxford: Oxford Policy Management.
UPGro (no date, a) ‘Hidden crisis: strengthening the evidence base on the sustainability of rural groundwater services’ [online] <http://upgro.org/catalyst-projects/hidden-crisis1/> [accessed 29 August 2015].
UPGro (no date, b) ‘Hidden crisis: unravelling current failures for future success in rural groundwater supply’ [online] <http://upgro.org/consortium/hidden-crisis2/> [accessed 29 August 2015].
Walters, J.P. and Javernick-Will, A.N. (2015) ‘Long-term functionality of rural water services in developing countries: a system dynamics approach to understanding the dynamic interaction of factors’, Environmental Science & Technology, 49: 5035–43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es505975h>.
World Health Organization (WHO) (1983) ‘Minimum evaluation procedure for water supply and sanitation projects’, Geneva: WHO <http://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/61594>.
All accessed 8 September 2015
Improve International <www.improveinternational.com>
Triple-S, IRC <http://www.waterservicesthatlast.org/>
UPGro <www.upgro.org>
VFM-WASH <www.vfm-wash.org>
WASHCost, IRC <http://www.ircwash.org/washcost>
Water Point Data Exchange <http://www.waterpointdata.org>
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