Who really pays? A critical overview of the practicalities of funding universal access
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) include targets to achieve universal access to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) within the next 15 years (2015–30). To be sustainable, this requires the long-term funding of efficient operating costs, capital maintenance costs, and any costs of capital. It is recognized that this can only be done through a combination of user charges, national taxes, and international transfers. This paper describes the main permutations in present user charges and subsidies, and reports on the ways in which each helps or hinders access by the poor to both rural and urban WASH services. An overview, based on programme experience, academic and grey literature, indicates that it is possible to accelerate the provision of clean water, basic sanitation, and improved hygiene practices ahead of the socio-economic (effective demand) trend line but only with very significant direct and indirect subsidies; direct to consumers and indirect to the supporting institutions or entities (‘the enabling environment’). We conclude that, in the near term at least, it is likely that transfers will have to be acknowledged as a more prominent source of funding for recurrent costs, specifically capital maintenance charges, than donors would prefer. If supporting ongoing services for all, in rural areas or low-income urban settlements, with the necessary level of ongoing subsidies (transfers) is unaffordable for global society, most likely by default, then focusing upon subsidizing the poorest and most marginalized in the long term is the ‘least bad’ alternative approach – but this approach cannot be expected to deliver genuine SDGs.Afrobarometer (2013) What People Want From Government: Basic Services Performance Ratings, 34 Countries, Afrobarometer.
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Appleton, B. and Black, B. (1990) ‘The decade flows on’, New Internationalist 207, May 1990 [online] <http://newint.org/features/1990/05/05/decade/#sthash.sFGzzP0e.dpuf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
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Banerjee, S. and Morella, E. (2011) Africa’s Water and Sanitation Infrastructure: Access, Affordability, and Alternatives, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Baumann, E. (2009) May-day! May-day! Our Handpumps Are Not Working! RWSN Perspective no. 1, St Gallen, Switzerland: Rural Water Supply Network.
Bayliss, K., Newborne, P. and Tucker, J. (2012) Strengthening Pro-poor Targeting of Investments by African Utilities in Urban Water and Sanitation – The Role of the International Development Association of the World Bank: Case Studies from Ghana, Burkina Faso and Tanzania [pdf], London: Overseas Development Institute for WaterAid <http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/15599/1/synthesis_report__final__february_25th_2012_2.pdf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Boex, J. (2014) Triggering Increased City-Level Public Finance for Pro-Poor Sanitation Improvements: The Role of Political Economy and Fiscal Instruments, Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
Boulenouar, J. and Schweitzer, R. (2015) Infrastructure Asset Management for Rural Water Supply, Briefing Note, The Hague: IRC.
Botting, M.J., Porbeni, E.O., Joffres, M.R., Johnston, B.C., Black, R.E. and Mills, E.J. (2010) ‘Water and sanitation infrastructure for health: the impact of foreign aid’, Globalization and Health 6(12): 1–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186%2F1744-8603-6-12>.
Braimah, C. (2011) Management of Small Towns Water Supply, Ghana, PhD thesis, Cranfield, UK: Cranfield University.
Caplan, K. and Harvey, E. (2010) Small Town Water and Sanitation Delivery: Taking a Wider View, London: WaterAid
Carter, R., Harvey, E. and Casey, V. (2010) ‘User financing of rural handpump water services’, in IRC Symposium 2010: Pumps, Pipes and Promises, The Hague: IRC.
Choguill, C., Franceys, R. and Cotton, A. (1993) Planning for Water and Sanitation, Sheffield, UK: University of Sheffield, Centre for Development Planning Studies.
Danilenko, A., van den Berg, C., Macheve, B. and Moffitt, J. (2014) The IBNET Water Supply and Sanitation Blue Book 2014: The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities Databook, Washington, DC: World Bank Group.
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Fonseca, C. (2014) The Death of the Communal Handpump? Rural Water and Sanitation Household Costs in Lower-Income Countries, PhD thesis, Cranfield, UK: Cranfield University.
Foster, T. (2013) ‘Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone and Uganda’, Environmental Science and Technology 47: 12027–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es402086n>.
Foster, T. (2015) ‘Why financial sustainability matters: evidence from sub-Saharan Africa’ [PowerPoint presentation], Sustainable Finance for Universal Rural Water Services, World Water Week, 25 August 2015 <http://programme.worldwaterweek.org/sites/default/files/finsust_4548_foster_oxford_0.pdf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Franceys, R. (2005) ‘Charging to enter the water shop? The costs of urban water connections for the poor’, Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 5(6): 209–16.
Franceys, R. and Cavill, S. (2012) A Comprehensive Literature Review on Charging for and Subsidising WASH Services, New York: UNICEF - WASH/PD.
van Ginneken, M., Netterstrom, U. and Bennett, A. (2011) More, Better, or Different Spending? Trends in Public Expenditure on Water and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa, Washington, DC: World Bank <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2011/12/15978054/more-better-or-different-spending-trends-public-expenditure-water-sanitation-sub-saharan-africa> [accessed 9 December 2015].
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Harris, B., Brighu, U., Poonia, R. and Franceys, R. (2016) The Role of State Water Departments in Supporting Successful Community Managed Water Services in Three Indian States, forthcoming.
Harvey, P. (2007) ‘Cost determination and sustainable financing for rural water services in sub-Saharan Africa’, Water Policy 9(4): 373 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2007.012>.
Heymans, C., Eales, K. and Franceys, R. (2014) The Limits and Possibilities of Prepaid Water in Urban Africa: Lessons from the Field, WSP Report, Washington DC: World Bank Group.
Hope, R. (2014) ‘Is community water management the community’s choice? Implications for water and development policy in Africa’, Water Policy 17(4): 1–15 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2014.170>.
Hutchings, P., Chan, M.Y., Cuadrado, L., Ezbakhe, F., Mesa, B., Tamekawa, C. and Franceys, R. (2015) ‘A systematic review of success factors in the community management of rural water supplies over the past 30 years’, Water Policy 17: 963–83 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2015.128>.
Hutton, G. (2015) Benefits and Costs of the Water Sanitation and Hygiene Targets for the Post-2015 Development Agenda: Post-2015 Consensus [pdf], Working Paper 26 January 2015, Copenhagen Consensus Center <http://www.copenhagenconsensus.com/post-2015-consensus/water-and-sanitation> [accessed 9 December 2015].
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McIntyre, P. (2015) Direct Support Post-Construction to Rural Water Service Providers [pdf], The Hague: IRC <www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/084-201502triple-s_bn06defweb.pdf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2009) Managing Water for All, Paris: OECD.
OECD (2015) ‘Revenue statistics: comparative tables’ [online], <http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=REV> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Pilgrim, N.R. (2007) Water Working Notes: Principles of Town Water Supply and Sanitation, Part 1: Water Supply, Washington, DC: Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Board of the Infrastructure Network, World Bank Group.
Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) (2009) Myths of the Rural Water Supply Sector, RWSN Perspective no. 4, Gland, Switzerland: Rural Water Supply Network.
Sachs, J. and Schmidt-Traub, G. (2014) Financing Sustainable Development: Implementing the SDGs through Effective Investment Strategies and Partnerships [pdf] Paris: Sustainable Development Solutions Network <http://unsdsn.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/150619-SDSN-Financing-Sustainable-Development-Paper-FINAL-02.pdf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
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United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN-DESA) (2015) The Addis Ababa Action Agenda of the Third International Conference on Financing for Development [pdf], New York: UN-DESA <www.un.org/esa/ffd/ffd3/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2015/07/Addis-Ababa-Action-Agenda-Draft-Outcome-Document-7-July-2015.pdf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
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WaterAid (2015) Essential Element: Why International Aid For Water, Sanitation and Hygiene is Still a Critical Source of Finance for Many Countries [pdf], London: WaterAid <www.wateraid.org/what-we-do/our-approach/research-and-publications/view-publication?id=0cad195c-1701-4466-959c-7cc7907732d1> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Weitz, A. and Franceys, R. (2002) Beyond Boundaries: Extending Services to the Urban Poor, Manila: Asian Development Bank.
WHO and UNICEF (2015) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2015 Update, Geneva: World Health Organization and UNICEF.
Wolf, S. (2007) ‘Does aid improve public service delivery?’ Review of World Economics 143(4): 650–72 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10290-007-0126-8>.
Water Partnership Programme (WPP) (2010a) Guidelines for User Fees and Cost Recovery for Urban, Networked Water and Sanitation Delivery, Tunis: Water Partnership Programme, African Development Bank.
WPP (2010b) Guidelines for User Fees and Cost Recovery for Rural, Non-Networked, Water and Sanitation Delivery, Tunis: Water Partnership Programme, African Development Bank.
World Bank, ‘Poverty’ <www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty> [accessed 10 December 2015].
Afrobarometer (2013) What People Want From Government: Basic Services Performance Ratings, 34 Countries, Afrobarometer.
Agarwal, A. (2001) ‘The water business’ [online], Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment, 15 November 2001 <www.cseindia.org/node/3919> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Anderson, E. and Langford, M. (2013) ‘A distorted metric: The MDGs and state capacity’, Working Paper, Oslo: Norwegian Centre for Human Rights.
Appleton, B. and Black, B. (1990) ‘The decade flows on’, New Internationalist 207, May 1990 [online] <http://newint.org/features/1990/05/05/decade/#sthash.sFGzzP0e.dpuf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Bain, R., Luyendijk, R. and Bartram, J. (2013) Universal Access to Drinking Water: The Role of Aid, WIDER Working Paper, No. 2013/088 [pdf], UNU-WIDER <https://www.wider.unu.edu/sites/default/files/WP2013-088.pdf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Banerjee, S. and Morella, E. (2011) Africa’s Water and Sanitation Infrastructure: Access, Affordability, and Alternatives, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Baumann, E. (2009) May-day! May-day! Our Handpumps Are Not Working! RWSN Perspective no. 1, St Gallen, Switzerland: Rural Water Supply Network.
Bayliss, K., Newborne, P. and Tucker, J. (2012) Strengthening Pro-poor Targeting of Investments by African Utilities in Urban Water and Sanitation – The Role of the International Development Association of the World Bank: Case Studies from Ghana, Burkina Faso and Tanzania [pdf], London: Overseas Development Institute for WaterAid <http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/15599/1/synthesis_report__final__february_25th_2012_2.pdf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Boex, J. (2014) Triggering Increased City-Level Public Finance for Pro-Poor Sanitation Improvements: The Role of Political Economy and Fiscal Instruments, Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
Boulenouar, J. and Schweitzer, R. (2015) Infrastructure Asset Management for Rural Water Supply, Briefing Note, The Hague: IRC.
Botting, M.J., Porbeni, E.O., Joffres, M.R., Johnston, B.C., Black, R.E. and Mills, E.J. (2010) ‘Water and sanitation infrastructure for health: the impact of foreign aid’, Globalization and Health 6(12): 1–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186%2F1744-8603-6-12>.
Braimah, C. (2011) Management of Small Towns Water Supply, Ghana, PhD thesis, Cranfield, UK: Cranfield University.
Caplan, K. and Harvey, E. (2010) Small Town Water and Sanitation Delivery: Taking a Wider View, London: WaterAid
Carter, R., Harvey, E. and Casey, V. (2010) ‘User financing of rural handpump water services’, in IRC Symposium 2010: Pumps, Pipes and Promises, The Hague: IRC.
Choguill, C., Franceys, R. and Cotton, A. (1993) Planning for Water and Sanitation, Sheffield, UK: University of Sheffield, Centre for Development Planning Studies.
Danilenko, A., van den Berg, C., Macheve, B. and Moffitt, J. (2014) The IBNET Water Supply and Sanitation Blue Book 2014: The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities Databook, Washington, DC: World Bank Group.
Department for International Development (DFID) (2013) Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Evidence Paper [pdf], London: DFID <https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/water-sanitation-and-hygiene-evidence-paper> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Fonseca, C. (2014) The Death of the Communal Handpump? Rural Water and Sanitation Household Costs in Lower-Income Countries, PhD thesis, Cranfield, UK: Cranfield University.
Foster, T. (2013) ‘Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone and Uganda’, Environmental Science and Technology 47: 12027–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es402086n>.
Foster, T. (2015) ‘Why financial sustainability matters: evidence from sub-Saharan Africa’ [PowerPoint presentation], Sustainable Finance for Universal Rural Water Services, World Water Week, 25 August 2015 <http://programme.worldwaterweek.org/sites/default/files/finsust_4548_foster_oxford_0.pdf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Franceys, R. (2005) ‘Charging to enter the water shop? The costs of urban water connections for the poor’, Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 5(6): 209–16.
Franceys, R. and Cavill, S. (2012) A Comprehensive Literature Review on Charging for and Subsidising WASH Services, New York: UNICEF - WASH/PD.
van Ginneken, M., Netterstrom, U. and Bennett, A. (2011) More, Better, or Different Spending? Trends in Public Expenditure on Water and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa, Washington, DC: World Bank <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2011/12/15978054/more-better-or-different-spending-trends-public-expenditure-water-sanitation-sub-saharan-africa> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Hall, D. and Lobina, E. (2012) Financing Water and Sanitation: Public Realities [pdf], London: Public Services International Research Unit <http://www.world-psi.org/sites/default/files/documents/research/psiru_financing_water_sanitation.pdf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Harris, B., Brighu, U., Poonia, R. and Franceys, R. (2016) The Role of State Water Departments in Supporting Successful Community Managed Water Services in Three Indian States, forthcoming.
Harvey, P. (2007) ‘Cost determination and sustainable financing for rural water services in sub-Saharan Africa’, Water Policy 9(4): 373 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2007.012>.
Heymans, C., Eales, K. and Franceys, R. (2014) The Limits and Possibilities of Prepaid Water in Urban Africa: Lessons from the Field, WSP Report, Washington DC: World Bank Group.
Hope, R. (2014) ‘Is community water management the community’s choice? Implications for water and development policy in Africa’, Water Policy 17(4): 1–15 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2014.170>.
Hutchings, P., Chan, M.Y., Cuadrado, L., Ezbakhe, F., Mesa, B., Tamekawa, C. and Franceys, R. (2015) ‘A systematic review of success factors in the community management of rural water supplies over the past 30 years’, Water Policy 17: 963–83 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2015.128>.
Hutton, G. (2015) Benefits and Costs of the Water Sanitation and Hygiene Targets for the Post-2015 Development Agenda: Post-2015 Consensus [pdf], Working Paper 26 January 2015, Copenhagen Consensus Center <http://www.copenhagenconsensus.com/post-2015-consensus/water-and-sanitation> [accessed 9 December 2015].
International Monetary Fund (IMF) (2015) ‘IMF world revenue longitudinal dataset’ [online], Washington, DC: IMF <http://data.imf.org/?sk=77413F1D-1525-450A-A23A-47AEED40FE78> [accessed 9 December 2015].
McIntyre, P. (2015) Direct Support Post-Construction to Rural Water Service Providers [pdf], The Hague: IRC <www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/084-201502triple-s_bn06defweb.pdf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2009) Managing Water for All, Paris: OECD.
OECD (2015) ‘Revenue statistics: comparative tables’ [online], <http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=REV> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Pilgrim, N.R. (2007) Water Working Notes: Principles of Town Water Supply and Sanitation, Part 1: Water Supply, Washington, DC: Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Board of the Infrastructure Network, World Bank Group.
Rural Water Supply Network (RWSN) (2009) Myths of the Rural Water Supply Sector, RWSN Perspective no. 4, Gland, Switzerland: Rural Water Supply Network.
Sachs, J. and Schmidt-Traub, G. (2014) Financing Sustainable Development: Implementing the SDGs through Effective Investment Strategies and Partnerships [pdf] Paris: Sustainable Development Solutions Network <http://unsdsn.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/150619-SDSN-Financing-Sustainable-Development-Paper-FINAL-02.pdf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Sanitation and Water for All (2015) Mid-term Review of Progress Towards 2014 High Level Meeting Commitments [online], New York: Sanitation and Water for All (SWA) Secretariat: <http://sanitationandwaterforall.org/news/mid-term-review-of-progress-against-2014-high-level-meeting-commitments/> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Slavin, T. (2015) ‘Beyond aid: how do we fund the sustainable development goals?’, The Guardian, 13 May, <http://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2015/may/13/beyond-aid-how-do-we-fund-the-sustainable-development-goals> [accessed 6 January 2016].
Therkildsen, O. (1988) Watering White Elephants? Lessons from Donor Funded Planning and Implementation of Rural Water Supplies in Tanzania, Uppsala, Sweden: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.
Tremolet, S., Kolsky, P. and Perez, E. (2011) Financing Household On-Site Sanitation for the Poor, WSP Sanitation Global Practice Team, Washington, DC: World Bank.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN-DESA) (2015) The Addis Ababa Action Agenda of the Third International Conference on Financing for Development [pdf], New York: UN-DESA <www.un.org/esa/ffd/ffd3/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2015/07/Addis-Ababa-Action-Agenda-Draft-Outcome-Document-7-July-2015.pdf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
UN-Water Global Analysis and Assessment of Sanitation and Drinking-water (GLAAS) (2014) Investing in Water and Sanitation: Increasing Access, Reducing Inequalities [pdf], Geneva: World Health Organization, UN-Water <www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/glaas/2014/glaas_report_2014/en/> [accessed 21 December 2015].
WaterAid (2015) Essential Element: Why International Aid For Water, Sanitation and Hygiene is Still a Critical Source of Finance for Many Countries [pdf], London: WaterAid <www.wateraid.org/what-we-do/our-approach/research-and-publications/view-publication?id=0cad195c-1701-4466-959c-7cc7907732d1> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Weitz, A. and Franceys, R. (2002) Beyond Boundaries: Extending Services to the Urban Poor, Manila: Asian Development Bank.
WHO and UNICEF (2015) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2015 Update, Geneva: World Health Organization and UNICEF.
Wolf, S. (2007) ‘Does aid improve public service delivery?’ Review of World Economics 143(4): 650–72 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10290-007-0126-8>.
Water Partnership Programme (WPP) (2010a) Guidelines for User Fees and Cost Recovery for Urban, Networked Water and Sanitation Delivery, Tunis: Water Partnership Programme, African Development Bank.
WPP (2010b) Guidelines for User Fees and Cost Recovery for Rural, Non-Networked, Water and Sanitation Delivery, Tunis: Water Partnership Programme, African Development Bank.
World Bank, ‘Poverty’ <www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty> [accessed 10 December 2015].
Afrobarometer (2013) What People Want From Government: Basic Services Performance Ratings, 34 Countries, Afrobarometer.
Agarwal, A. (2001) ‘The water business’ [online], Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment, 15 November 2001 <www.cseindia.org/node/3919> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Anderson, E. and Langford, M. (2013) ‘A distorted metric: The MDGs and state capacity’, Working Paper, Oslo: Norwegian Centre for Human Rights.
Appleton, B. and Black, B. (1990) ‘The decade flows on’, New Internationalist 207, May 1990 [online] <http://newint.org/features/1990/05/05/decade/#sthash.sFGzzP0e.dpuf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Bain, R., Luyendijk, R. and Bartram, J. (2013) Universal Access to Drinking Water: The Role of Aid, WIDER Working Paper, No. 2013/088 [pdf], UNU-WIDER <https://www.wider.unu.edu/sites/default/files/WP2013-088.pdf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Banerjee, S. and Morella, E. (2011) Africa’s Water and Sanitation Infrastructure: Access, Affordability, and Alternatives, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Baumann, E. (2009) May-day! May-day! Our Handpumps Are Not Working! RWSN Perspective no. 1, St Gallen, Switzerland: Rural Water Supply Network.
Bayliss, K., Newborne, P. and Tucker, J. (2012) Strengthening Pro-poor Targeting of Investments by African Utilities in Urban Water and Sanitation – The Role of the International Development Association of the World Bank: Case Studies from Ghana, Burkina Faso and Tanzania [pdf], London: Overseas Development Institute for WaterAid <http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/15599/1/synthesis_report__final__february_25th_2012_2.pdf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Boex, J. (2014) Triggering Increased City-Level Public Finance for Pro-Poor Sanitation Improvements: The Role of Political Economy and Fiscal Instruments, Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
Boulenouar, J. and Schweitzer, R. (2015) Infrastructure Asset Management for Rural Water Supply, Briefing Note, The Hague: IRC.
Botting, M.J., Porbeni, E.O., Joffres, M.R., Johnston, B.C., Black, R.E. and Mills, E.J. (2010) ‘Water and sanitation infrastructure for health: the impact of foreign aid’, Globalization and Health 6(12): 1–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186%2F1744-8603-6-12>.
Braimah, C. (2011) Management of Small Towns Water Supply, Ghana, PhD thesis, Cranfield, UK: Cranfield University.
Caplan, K. and Harvey, E. (2010) Small Town Water and Sanitation Delivery: Taking a Wider View, London: WaterAid
Carter, R., Harvey, E. and Casey, V. (2010) ‘User financing of rural handpump water services’, in IRC Symposium 2010: Pumps, Pipes and Promises, The Hague: IRC.
Choguill, C., Franceys, R. and Cotton, A. (1993) Planning for Water and Sanitation, Sheffield, UK: University of Sheffield, Centre for Development Planning Studies.
Danilenko, A., van den Berg, C., Macheve, B. and Moffitt, J. (2014) The IBNET Water Supply and Sanitation Blue Book 2014: The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities Databook, Washington, DC: World Bank Group.
Department for International Development (DFID) (2013) Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Evidence Paper [pdf], London: DFID <https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/water-sanitation-and-hygiene-evidence-paper> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Fonseca, C. (2014) The Death of the Communal Handpump? Rural Water and Sanitation Household Costs in Lower-Income Countries, PhD thesis, Cranfield, UK: Cranfield University.
Foster, T. (2013) ‘Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone and Uganda’, Environmental Science and Technology 47: 12027–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es402086n>.
Foster, T. (2015) ‘Why financial sustainability matters: evidence from sub-Saharan Africa’ [PowerPoint presentation], Sustainable Finance for Universal Rural Water Services, World Water Week, 25 August 2015 <http://programme.worldwaterweek.org/sites/default/files/finsust_4548_foster_oxford_0.pdf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Franceys, R. (2005) ‘Charging to enter the water shop? The costs of urban water connections for the poor’, Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 5(6): 209–16.
Franceys, R. and Cavill, S. (2012) A Comprehensive Literature Review on Charging for and Subsidising WASH Services, New York: UNICEF - WASH/PD.
van Ginneken, M., Netterstrom, U. and Bennett, A. (2011) More, Better, or Different Spending? Trends in Public Expenditure on Water and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa, Washington, DC: World Bank <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2011/12/15978054/more-better-or-different-spending-trends-public-expenditure-water-sanitation-sub-saharan-africa> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Hall, D. and Lobina, E. (2012) Financing Water and Sanitation: Public Realities [pdf], London: Public Services International Research Unit <http://www.world-psi.org/sites/default/files/documents/research/psiru_financing_water_sanitation.pdf> [accessed 9 December 2015].
Harris, B., Brighu, U., Poonia, R. and Franceys, R. (2016) The Role of State Water Departments in Supporting Successful Community Managed Water Services in Three Indian States, forthcoming.
Harvey, P. (2007) ‘Cost determination and sustainable financing for rural water services in sub-Saharan Africa’, Water Policy 9(4): 373 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2007.012>.
Heymans, C., Eales, K. and Franceys, R. (2014) The Limits and Possibilities of Prepaid Water in Urban Africa: Lessons from the Field, WSP Report, Washington DC: World Bank Group.
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