Since the launch of its ‘go out’ policy in 1999, China has positioned itself not only as Africa’s largest trade partner but also as its largest investor. In the water sector, Chinese companies and banks are now the biggest builders and financiers of global hydropower dams. Moreover, China has increasingly begun to implement other water-related projects, including the construction of water treatment stations and water supply projects across Africa. Chinese companies’ competitive advantage to win tenders, largely due to the financial and political support of Beijing’s institutions (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Export-Import Bank of China (China Exim Bank), China Development Bank), plays an important role in increasing China’s footprint in Africa. However, the social and environmental implications of this increasing infrastructure development have been noticed. Given that many dams built by Chinese companies are constructed without reference to international environmental and social standards, ecological processes can suffer long-term damage, which has an additional effect on local communities. This paper will give a general overview of Chinese investments in Africa’s water sector, looking into the modes of engagement as well as discussing the potential pitfalls and benefits of Chinese investments in the water sector and what regional impacts these may have.

Agence Africaine de Presse (2015) ‘Chinese bank approves 400bn CFA franc loan for water supply in Cameroon’, StarAfrica <http://en.starafrica.com/news/chinese-bank-approves-400bn-cfa-franc-loan-for-water-supply-in-cameroon.html> (posted 3 February 2015) [accessed 2 November 2015].

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Bosshard, P. (2008) ‘China’s environmental footprint in Africa’, SAIIA Policy Briefing 3, Johannesburg: South African Institute of International Affairs.

Buckley, P.J., Clegg, L.J., Cross, A.R., Liu, X., Voss, H. and Zheng, P. (2007) ‘The determinants of Chinese outward foreign direct investment’, Journal of Business Studies 38 (4): 499–518 <www.jstor.org/stable/4540439> [accessed 9 December 2015].

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Cernea, M. (2000) ‘Risks, safeguards and reconstruction: a model for population displacement and resettlement’, Economic and Political Weekly 35 (41): 3659–78 <www.jstor.org/stable/4409836> [accessed 9 December 2015].

CES (2012) ‘Conférence “Water scarcity in Africa: issues and challenges”’, Climat Environnement Société (CES) <www.gisclimat.fr/en/node/1417> (posted 3 October 2012) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Chen, C., Goldstein, A. and Orr, R.J. (2009) ‘Local operations of Chinese construction firms in Africa: an empirical survey’, International Journal of Construction Management 9 (2): 75–85.

Cissé, D. (2013) ‘South-south migration and Sino-African small traders: a comparative study of Chinese in Senegal and Africans in China’, African Review of Economics and Finance 5 (1): 17–30.

Citifmonline (2014) ‘Mahama to commission Kpong water expansion project’, Citi FM Online <www.citifmonline.com/2014/12/23/mahama-commission-kpong-water-expansion-project/#sthash.Y7onfMoH.dpbs> (posted 23 December 2014) [accessed 2 November 2015].

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Deloitte (2015) Deloitte on Africa: African Construction Trends Report 2014, Johannesburg: Deloitte & Touche <www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/za/Documents/manufacturing/za_africa_construction_trends_2015_10032015.pdf> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Diop, M., Diedhiou, M. and Niasse, M. (2009) ‘West African experience in managing people displaced by large dams’, in J. Skinner, M. Niasse and L. Haas (eds), Sharing the Benefits of Large Dams in West Africa: Natural Resource Issues, London: International Institute for Environment and Development.

Djagba, J.F., Rodenburg, J., Zwart, S.J., Houndagba, C.J. and Kiepe, P. (2014) ‘Failure and success factors of irrigation system developments: a case study from the Ouémé and Zou valleys in Benin’, Irrigation and Drainage 63 (3): 328–39, DOI: 10.1002/ird.1794.

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Esteller, M. and Diaz-Delgado, C. (2002) ‘Environmental effects of aquifer overexploitation: a case study in the highlands of Mexico’, Environmental Management 29 (2): 266–78 <www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11815828> [accessed 2 November 2015].

FOCAC (2005) ‘China and Nigeria sign water supply project agreement’, Forum for China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC), 19 October <www.focac.org/eng/jmhz/t217231.htm> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Forster, M., Zadek, S., Guang, Y., Yu, K., Chen, X. and George, M. (2010) ‘Corporate responsibility in African development: insights from an emerging dialogue’, Working Paper No. 60, China: Institute of West‐Asian and African Studies of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences.

Foster, V., Butterfield, W., Chen, C. and Pushak, N. (2009) Building Bridges: China’s Growing Role as Infrastructure Financier for Sub-Saharan Africa, Washington DC: World Bank <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/2614/480910PUB0Buil101OFFICIAL0USE0ONLY1.pdf?sequence=1> [accessed 2 November 2015].

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Gill, B. and Reilly, J. (2007) ‘The tenuous hold of China Inc. in Africa’, The Washington Quarterly 30 (3): 37–52, http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/wash.2007.30.3.37.

Govender, K. (2015) ‘Africa has hidden wealth in groundwater’, BusinessDay <www.bdlive.co.za/national/science/2015/05/12/africa-has-hidden-wealth-in-groundwater> (posted 12 May 2015) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Government of Ghana (2014) ‘Ghana: Bui and the tale of three hydro dams’ <http://allafrica.com/stories/201401231317.html> (posted 23 January 2014) [accessed 14 December 2015].

Gu, J. (2009) ‘China’s private enterprises in Africa and the implications for African development’, European Journal of Development Research 21 (4): 570–87, http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2009.21.

GWI (2015) ‘China set for next step in African water’, Global Water Intelligence Magazine (GWI) 16 (3).

Hance, J. (2009) ‘Gabonese environmental activist receives prize for standing up to government, Chinese company’, Mongabay <http://news.mongabay.com/2009/0419-hance_essangui.html> (posted 20 April 2009) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Hensengerth, O. (2013) ‘Chinese hydropower companies and environmental norms in countries of the global South: the involvement of Sinohydro in Ghana’s Bui Dam’, Environment, Development and Sustainability 15, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-012-9410-4.

International Rivers (n.d. 1) ‘Belinga Dam, Gabon’, International Rivers [website] <www.internationalrivers.org/resources/belinga-dam-gabon-3597> [accessed 2 November 2015].

International Rivers (n.d. 2) ‘Environmental impacts of dams’, International Rivers [website] <www.internationalrivers.org/environmental-impacts-of-dams> [accessed 2 November 2015].

International Rivers (n.d. 3) ‘Human impacts of dams’, International Rivers [website] <www.internationalrivers.org/human-impacts-of-dams> [accessed 16 April 2015].

International Rivers (2010) ‘African dams briefing: International Rivers Africa program’, Berkeley CA: International Rivers <www.internationalrivers.org/files/attached-files/afrdamsbriefingjune2010.pdf> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Kingsford, R. (2000) ‘Ecological impacts of dams, water diversions and river management on floodplain wetlands in Australia’, Austral Ecology 25 (2): 109–27, http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1442-9993.2000.01036.x.

Martinez-Alfaro, P.E., Montero-Gonzalez, E. and Lopez-Camacho, B. (1992) ‘The impact of the overexploitation of the Campo de Montiel aquifer on the Langunas de Ruiera ecosystem’, in I. Simmers, F. Villarroya and L.F. Rebollo (eds), Selected Papers on Aquifer Overexploitation, Hannover: Verlag Heinz Heise.

McCartney, M. (2009) ‘Living with dams: managing the environmental impact’, Water Policy 11 (1): 121–39 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2009.108> [accessed 2 November 2015].

McDonald, K., Bosshard, P. and Brewer, N. (2009) ‘Exporting dams: China’s hydropower industry goes global’, Journal of Environmental Management 90 (3): 294–302, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.07.023.

Milani, C.R.S., Suyama, B. and Lopes, L.L. (2013) ‘Políticas de Cooperação Internacional para o Desenvolvimento no Norte e no Sul: que lições e desafios para o Brasil? Analise’, São Paulo: Articulação SUL and Fundação Friedrich Ebert.

Mthembu-Salter, G. (2009) Elephants, Ants and Superpowers: Nigeria’s Relations with China, Occasional Paper No. 42, Johannesburg: South African Institute of International Affairs.

Mulowa, A. (2012) ‘Zambia: govt inks K750 billion water project’ <http://allafrica.com/stories/201210310596.html> (posted 31 October 2012) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Nile Basin (2015) ‘About us: member states’, Nile Basin Initiative <www.nilebasin.org/index.php/about-us/member-states> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Patey, L. (2014) The New Kings of Crude: China, India, and the Global Struggle for Oil in Sudan and South Sudan, London: C. Hurst & Co.

Power, M., Mohan, G. and Mullins, M.T. (2012) China’s Resource Diplomacy in Africa: Powering Development?, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Rodriguez-Estreller, T. and Lopez-Bermudez, F. (1992) ‘Some ecological consequences of aquifer overexploitation in wetlands in Spain’, in I. Simmers, F. Villarroya and L.F. Rebollo (eds), Selected Papers on Aquifer Overexploitation, Hannover: Verlag Heinz Heise.

Stella, N. (2007) ‘Central Africa’s “most beautiful waterfall” under threat’, International Rivers [website] <www.internationalrivers.org/resources/central-africa-s-most-beautiful-waterfall-under-threat-2880> (posted 2 November 2007) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Sun, Y., Asante, F. and Birner, R. (2010) ‘Opportunities and challenges of community-based rural drinking water supplies: an analysis of water and sanitation committees in Ghana’, Discussion Paper 01026, Washington DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.

UNICEF (2015) ‘World Water Day: nearly 750 million people still without adequate drinking water’, UNICEF press release <www.unicef.org/media/media_81329.html> (posted 20 March 2015) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Urban, F. and Nordensvard, J. (2014) ‘China dams the world: the environmental and social impacts of Chinese dams’, E-International Relations <www.e-ir.info/2014/01/30/china-dams-the-world-the-environmental-and-social-impacts-of-chinese-dams/> (posted 30 January 2014) [accessed 2 November 2015].

USGS (2015) ‘Groundwater depletion’, United States Geological Survey (USGS) <http://water.usgs.gov/edu/gwdepletion.html> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Verhoeven, H. (2013) ‘China shifts power balance in the Nile river basin’, China Dialogue <www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/6178-China-shifts-power-balance-in-the-Nile-river-basin> (posted 4 July 2013) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Wang, Z. (2013) ‘Bui dam provides new impetus for Sino-Ghana relations’, GhanaWeb, 24 May <www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=274883> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Water (2015) ‘Millions lack safe water’, Water.org <http://water.org/water-crisis/water-facts/water/> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Water Technology (2015) ‘Bui Dam hydroelectricity project, Bui National Park, Ghana’, Water Technology <www.water-technology.net/projects/bui-dam-hydro-power-ghana/> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Wegerich, K., Dubale, T. and Bruins, B. (2008) ‘Never look a gift horse in the mouth or should you? Upgrading the Hare irrigation system in Southern Ethiopia’, Irrigation and Drainage 57 (4): 470–80, http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ird.361.

World Commission on Dams (2000) Dams and Development: A New Framework for Decision-making. The Report of the World Commission on Dams, London and Sterling VA: Earthscan <www.unep.org/dams/WCD/report/WCD_DAMS%20report.pdf> [accessed 14 December 2015].

Agence Africaine de Presse (2015) ‘Chinese bank approves 400bn CFA franc loan for water supply in Cameroon’, StarAfrica <http://en.starafrica.com/news/chinese-bank-approves-400bn-cfa-franc-loan-for-water-supply-in-cameroon.html> (posted 3 February 2015) [accessed 2 November 2015].

AidData (2010) ‘Kpong water supply and sanitation’, AidData <http://china.aiddata.org/projects/978> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Alden, C. and Alves, A.C. (2009) China and Africa’s Natural Resources: The Challenges and Implications for Development and Governance, Occasional Paper No. 41, Johannesburg: South African Institute of International Affairs.

AllAfrica (2007) ‘Zambia: government to pay K1 billion China Geo Engineering Company’, AllAfrica <http://allafrica.com/stories/200712270422.html> (posted 26 December 2007) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Altinbilek, D. (2002) ‘The role of dams in development’, Water Resources Development 18 (1): 9–24, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900620220121620.

Bartholomew, C. (2012) ‘Assessing China’s role and influence in Africa: hearing before the Subcommittee on Africa, Global Health, and Human Rights’, Washington DC: US House Committee on Foreign Affairs <http://archives.republicans.foreignaffairs.house.gov/112/73538.pdf> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Bosshard, P. (2008) ‘China’s environmental footprint in Africa’, SAIIA Policy Briefing 3, Johannesburg: South African Institute of International Affairs.

Buckley, P.J., Clegg, L.J., Cross, A.R., Liu, X., Voss, H. and Zheng, P. (2007) ‘The determinants of Chinese outward foreign direct investment’, Journal of Business Studies 38 (4): 499–518 <www.jstor.org/stable/4540439> [accessed 9 December 2015].

Bui Power Authority (2015) ‘Project milestones’ <www.buipower.com/node/7> [accessed 14 December 2015].

Cernea, M. (2000) ‘Risks, safeguards and reconstruction: a model for population displacement and resettlement’, Economic and Political Weekly 35 (41): 3659–78 <www.jstor.org/stable/4409836> [accessed 9 December 2015].

CES (2012) ‘Conférence “Water scarcity in Africa: issues and challenges”’, Climat Environnement Société (CES) <www.gisclimat.fr/en/node/1417> (posted 3 October 2012) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Chen, C., Goldstein, A. and Orr, R.J. (2009) ‘Local operations of Chinese construction firms in Africa: an empirical survey’, International Journal of Construction Management 9 (2): 75–85.

Cissé, D. (2013) ‘South-south migration and Sino-African small traders: a comparative study of Chinese in Senegal and Africans in China’, African Review of Economics and Finance 5 (1): 17–30.

Citifmonline (2014) ‘Mahama to commission Kpong water expansion project’, Citi FM Online <www.citifmonline.com/2014/12/23/mahama-commission-kpong-water-expansion-project/#sthash.Y7onfMoH.dpbs> (posted 23 December 2014) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Cruickshank, G. (1995) Proyecto Lago de Texcoco: Rescate Hidroecológico, Mexico: Comisión Nacional del Agua, Gobierno de la Ciudad de México.

Davies, M. (2010) Background Paper for the Perspectives on Global Development 2010 Shifting Wealth: How China is Influencing Africa’s Development, Paris: OECD Development Centre.

Deloitte (2015) Deloitte on Africa: African Construction Trends Report 2014, Johannesburg: Deloitte & Touche <www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/za/Documents/manufacturing/za_africa_construction_trends_2015_10032015.pdf> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Diop, M., Diedhiou, M. and Niasse, M. (2009) ‘West African experience in managing people displaced by large dams’, in J. Skinner, M. Niasse and L. Haas (eds), Sharing the Benefits of Large Dams in West Africa: Natural Resource Issues, London: International Institute for Environment and Development.

Djagba, J.F., Rodenburg, J., Zwart, S.J., Houndagba, C.J. and Kiepe, P. (2014) ‘Failure and success factors of irrigation system developments: a case study from the Ouémé and Zou valleys in Benin’, Irrigation and Drainage 63 (3): 328–39, DOI: 10.1002/ird.1794.

EcoWorld (2008) ‘China’s approach to the African water crisis’, EcoWorld <www.ecoworld.com/business/chinas-approach-to-the-african-water-crisis.html> (posted 29 May 2008) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Esteller, M. and Diaz-Delgado, C. (2002) ‘Environmental effects of aquifer overexploitation: a case study in the highlands of Mexico’, Environmental Management 29 (2): 266–78 <www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11815828> [accessed 2 November 2015].

FOCAC (2005) ‘China and Nigeria sign water supply project agreement’, Forum for China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC), 19 October <www.focac.org/eng/jmhz/t217231.htm> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Forster, M., Zadek, S., Guang, Y., Yu, K., Chen, X. and George, M. (2010) ‘Corporate responsibility in African development: insights from an emerging dialogue’, Working Paper No. 60, China: Institute of West‐Asian and African Studies of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences.

Foster, V., Butterfield, W., Chen, C. and Pushak, N. (2009) Building Bridges: China’s Growing Role as Infrastructure Financier for Sub-Saharan Africa, Washington DC: World Bank <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/2614/480910PUB0Buil101OFFICIAL0USE0ONLY1.pdf?sequence=1> [accessed 2 November 2015].

German, L.A. and Wertz-Kanounnikoff, S. (2012) ‘Sino-Mozambican relations and their implications for forests: a preliminary assessment for the case of Mozambique’, Working Paper 93, Bogor, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research.

Gill, B. and Reilly, J. (2007) ‘The tenuous hold of China Inc. in Africa’, The Washington Quarterly 30 (3): 37–52, http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/wash.2007.30.3.37.

Govender, K. (2015) ‘Africa has hidden wealth in groundwater’, BusinessDay <www.bdlive.co.za/national/science/2015/05/12/africa-has-hidden-wealth-in-groundwater> (posted 12 May 2015) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Government of Ghana (2014) ‘Ghana: Bui and the tale of three hydro dams’ <http://allafrica.com/stories/201401231317.html> (posted 23 January 2014) [accessed 14 December 2015].

Gu, J. (2009) ‘China’s private enterprises in Africa and the implications for African development’, European Journal of Development Research 21 (4): 570–87, http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2009.21.

GWI (2015) ‘China set for next step in African water’, Global Water Intelligence Magazine (GWI) 16 (3).

Hance, J. (2009) ‘Gabonese environmental activist receives prize for standing up to government, Chinese company’, Mongabay <http://news.mongabay.com/2009/0419-hance_essangui.html> (posted 20 April 2009) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Hensengerth, O. (2013) ‘Chinese hydropower companies and environmental norms in countries of the global South: the involvement of Sinohydro in Ghana’s Bui Dam’, Environment, Development and Sustainability 15, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-012-9410-4.

International Rivers (n.d. 1) ‘Belinga Dam, Gabon’, International Rivers [website] <www.internationalrivers.org/resources/belinga-dam-gabon-3597> [accessed 2 November 2015].

International Rivers (n.d. 2) ‘Environmental impacts of dams’, International Rivers [website] <www.internationalrivers.org/environmental-impacts-of-dams> [accessed 2 November 2015].

International Rivers (n.d. 3) ‘Human impacts of dams’, International Rivers [website] <www.internationalrivers.org/human-impacts-of-dams> [accessed 16 April 2015].

International Rivers (2010) ‘African dams briefing: International Rivers Africa program’, Berkeley CA: International Rivers <www.internationalrivers.org/files/attached-files/afrdamsbriefingjune2010.pdf> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Kingsford, R. (2000) ‘Ecological impacts of dams, water diversions and river management on floodplain wetlands in Australia’, Austral Ecology 25 (2): 109–27, http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1442-9993.2000.01036.x.

Martinez-Alfaro, P.E., Montero-Gonzalez, E. and Lopez-Camacho, B. (1992) ‘The impact of the overexploitation of the Campo de Montiel aquifer on the Langunas de Ruiera ecosystem’, in I. Simmers, F. Villarroya and L.F. Rebollo (eds), Selected Papers on Aquifer Overexploitation, Hannover: Verlag Heinz Heise.

McCartney, M. (2009) ‘Living with dams: managing the environmental impact’, Water Policy 11 (1): 121–39 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2009.108> [accessed 2 November 2015].

McDonald, K., Bosshard, P. and Brewer, N. (2009) ‘Exporting dams: China’s hydropower industry goes global’, Journal of Environmental Management 90 (3): 294–302, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.07.023.

Milani, C.R.S., Suyama, B. and Lopes, L.L. (2013) ‘Políticas de Cooperação Internacional para o Desenvolvimento no Norte e no Sul: que lições e desafios para o Brasil? Analise’, São Paulo: Articulação SUL and Fundação Friedrich Ebert.

Mthembu-Salter, G. (2009) Elephants, Ants and Superpowers: Nigeria’s Relations with China, Occasional Paper No. 42, Johannesburg: South African Institute of International Affairs.

Mulowa, A. (2012) ‘Zambia: govt inks K750 billion water project’ <http://allafrica.com/stories/201210310596.html> (posted 31 October 2012) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Nile Basin (2015) ‘About us: member states’, Nile Basin Initiative <www.nilebasin.org/index.php/about-us/member-states> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Patey, L. (2014) The New Kings of Crude: China, India, and the Global Struggle for Oil in Sudan and South Sudan, London: C. Hurst & Co.

Power, M., Mohan, G. and Mullins, M.T. (2012) China’s Resource Diplomacy in Africa: Powering Development?, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Rodriguez-Estreller, T. and Lopez-Bermudez, F. (1992) ‘Some ecological consequences of aquifer overexploitation in wetlands in Spain’, in I. Simmers, F. Villarroya and L.F. Rebollo (eds), Selected Papers on Aquifer Overexploitation, Hannover: Verlag Heinz Heise.

Stella, N. (2007) ‘Central Africa’s “most beautiful waterfall” under threat’, International Rivers [website] <www.internationalrivers.org/resources/central-africa-s-most-beautiful-waterfall-under-threat-2880> (posted 2 November 2007) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Sun, Y., Asante, F. and Birner, R. (2010) ‘Opportunities and challenges of community-based rural drinking water supplies: an analysis of water and sanitation committees in Ghana’, Discussion Paper 01026, Washington DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.

UNICEF (2015) ‘World Water Day: nearly 750 million people still without adequate drinking water’, UNICEF press release <www.unicef.org/media/media_81329.html> (posted 20 March 2015) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Urban, F. and Nordensvard, J. (2014) ‘China dams the world: the environmental and social impacts of Chinese dams’, E-International Relations <www.e-ir.info/2014/01/30/china-dams-the-world-the-environmental-and-social-impacts-of-chinese-dams/> (posted 30 January 2014) [accessed 2 November 2015].

USGS (2015) ‘Groundwater depletion’, United States Geological Survey (USGS) <http://water.usgs.gov/edu/gwdepletion.html> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Verhoeven, H. (2013) ‘China shifts power balance in the Nile river basin’, China Dialogue <www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/6178-China-shifts-power-balance-in-the-Nile-river-basin> (posted 4 July 2013) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Wang, Z. (2013) ‘Bui dam provides new impetus for Sino-Ghana relations’, GhanaWeb, 24 May <www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=274883> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Water (2015) ‘Millions lack safe water’, Water.org <http://water.org/water-crisis/water-facts/water/> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Water Technology (2015) ‘Bui Dam hydroelectricity project, Bui National Park, Ghana’, Water Technology <www.water-technology.net/projects/bui-dam-hydro-power-ghana/> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Wegerich, K., Dubale, T. and Bruins, B. (2008) ‘Never look a gift horse in the mouth or should you? Upgrading the Hare irrigation system in Southern Ethiopia’, Irrigation and Drainage 57 (4): 470–80, http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ird.361.

World Commission on Dams (2000) Dams and Development: A New Framework for Decision-making. The Report of the World Commission on Dams, London and Sterling VA: Earthscan <www.unep.org/dams/WCD/report/WCD_DAMS%20report.pdf> [accessed 14 December 2015].

Agence Africaine de Presse (2015) ‘Chinese bank approves 400bn CFA franc loan for water supply in Cameroon’, StarAfrica <http://en.starafrica.com/news/chinese-bank-approves-400bn-cfa-franc-loan-for-water-supply-in-cameroon.html> (posted 3 February 2015) [accessed 2 November 2015].

AidData (2010) ‘Kpong water supply and sanitation’, AidData <http://china.aiddata.org/projects/978> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Alden, C. and Alves, A.C. (2009) China and Africa’s Natural Resources: The Challenges and Implications for Development and Governance, Occasional Paper No. 41, Johannesburg: South African Institute of International Affairs.

AllAfrica (2007) ‘Zambia: government to pay K1 billion China Geo Engineering Company’, AllAfrica <http://allafrica.com/stories/200712270422.html> (posted 26 December 2007) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Altinbilek, D. (2002) ‘The role of dams in development’, Water Resources Development 18 (1): 9–24, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900620220121620.

Bartholomew, C. (2012) ‘Assessing China’s role and influence in Africa: hearing before the Subcommittee on Africa, Global Health, and Human Rights’, Washington DC: US House Committee on Foreign Affairs <http://archives.republicans.foreignaffairs.house.gov/112/73538.pdf> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Bosshard, P. (2008) ‘China’s environmental footprint in Africa’, SAIIA Policy Briefing 3, Johannesburg: South African Institute of International Affairs.

Buckley, P.J., Clegg, L.J., Cross, A.R., Liu, X., Voss, H. and Zheng, P. (2007) ‘The determinants of Chinese outward foreign direct investment’, Journal of Business Studies 38 (4): 499–518 <www.jstor.org/stable/4540439> [accessed 9 December 2015].

Bui Power Authority (2015) ‘Project milestones’ <www.buipower.com/node/7> [accessed 14 December 2015].

Cernea, M. (2000) ‘Risks, safeguards and reconstruction: a model for population displacement and resettlement’, Economic and Political Weekly 35 (41): 3659–78 <www.jstor.org/stable/4409836> [accessed 9 December 2015].

CES (2012) ‘Conférence “Water scarcity in Africa: issues and challenges”’, Climat Environnement Société (CES) <www.gisclimat.fr/en/node/1417> (posted 3 October 2012) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Chen, C., Goldstein, A. and Orr, R.J. (2009) ‘Local operations of Chinese construction firms in Africa: an empirical survey’, International Journal of Construction Management 9 (2): 75–85.

Cissé, D. (2013) ‘South-south migration and Sino-African small traders: a comparative study of Chinese in Senegal and Africans in China’, African Review of Economics and Finance 5 (1): 17–30.

Citifmonline (2014) ‘Mahama to commission Kpong water expansion project’, Citi FM Online <www.citifmonline.com/2014/12/23/mahama-commission-kpong-water-expansion-project/#sthash.Y7onfMoH.dpbs> (posted 23 December 2014) [accessed 2 November 2015].

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Deloitte (2015) Deloitte on Africa: African Construction Trends Report 2014, Johannesburg: Deloitte & Touche <www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/za/Documents/manufacturing/za_africa_construction_trends_2015_10032015.pdf> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Diop, M., Diedhiou, M. and Niasse, M. (2009) ‘West African experience in managing people displaced by large dams’, in J. Skinner, M. Niasse and L. Haas (eds), Sharing the Benefits of Large Dams in West Africa: Natural Resource Issues, London: International Institute for Environment and Development.

Djagba, J.F., Rodenburg, J., Zwart, S.J., Houndagba, C.J. and Kiepe, P. (2014) ‘Failure and success factors of irrigation system developments: a case study from the Ouémé and Zou valleys in Benin’, Irrigation and Drainage 63 (3): 328–39, DOI: 10.1002/ird.1794.

EcoWorld (2008) ‘China’s approach to the African water crisis’, EcoWorld <www.ecoworld.com/business/chinas-approach-to-the-african-water-crisis.html> (posted 29 May 2008) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Esteller, M. and Diaz-Delgado, C. (2002) ‘Environmental effects of aquifer overexploitation: a case study in the highlands of Mexico’, Environmental Management 29 (2): 266–78 <www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11815828> [accessed 2 November 2015].

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Forster, M., Zadek, S., Guang, Y., Yu, K., Chen, X. and George, M. (2010) ‘Corporate responsibility in African development: insights from an emerging dialogue’, Working Paper No. 60, China: Institute of West‐Asian and African Studies of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences.

Foster, V., Butterfield, W., Chen, C. and Pushak, N. (2009) Building Bridges: China’s Growing Role as Infrastructure Financier for Sub-Saharan Africa, Washington DC: World Bank <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/2614/480910PUB0Buil101OFFICIAL0USE0ONLY1.pdf?sequence=1> [accessed 2 November 2015].

German, L.A. and Wertz-Kanounnikoff, S. (2012) ‘Sino-Mozambican relations and their implications for forests: a preliminary assessment for the case of Mozambique’, Working Paper 93, Bogor, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research.

Gill, B. and Reilly, J. (2007) ‘The tenuous hold of China Inc. in Africa’, The Washington Quarterly 30 (3): 37–52, http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/wash.2007.30.3.37.

Govender, K. (2015) ‘Africa has hidden wealth in groundwater’, BusinessDay <www.bdlive.co.za/national/science/2015/05/12/africa-has-hidden-wealth-in-groundwater> (posted 12 May 2015) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Government of Ghana (2014) ‘Ghana: Bui and the tale of three hydro dams’ <http://allafrica.com/stories/201401231317.html> (posted 23 January 2014) [accessed 14 December 2015].

Gu, J. (2009) ‘China’s private enterprises in Africa and the implications for African development’, European Journal of Development Research 21 (4): 570–87, http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2009.21.

GWI (2015) ‘China set for next step in African water’, Global Water Intelligence Magazine (GWI) 16 (3).

Hance, J. (2009) ‘Gabonese environmental activist receives prize for standing up to government, Chinese company’, Mongabay <http://news.mongabay.com/2009/0419-hance_essangui.html> (posted 20 April 2009) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Hensengerth, O. (2013) ‘Chinese hydropower companies and environmental norms in countries of the global South: the involvement of Sinohydro in Ghana’s Bui Dam’, Environment, Development and Sustainability 15, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-012-9410-4.

International Rivers (n.d. 1) ‘Belinga Dam, Gabon’, International Rivers [website] <www.internationalrivers.org/resources/belinga-dam-gabon-3597> [accessed 2 November 2015].

International Rivers (n.d. 2) ‘Environmental impacts of dams’, International Rivers [website] <www.internationalrivers.org/environmental-impacts-of-dams> [accessed 2 November 2015].

International Rivers (n.d. 3) ‘Human impacts of dams’, International Rivers [website] <www.internationalrivers.org/human-impacts-of-dams> [accessed 16 April 2015].

International Rivers (2010) ‘African dams briefing: International Rivers Africa program’, Berkeley CA: International Rivers <www.internationalrivers.org/files/attached-files/afrdamsbriefingjune2010.pdf> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Kingsford, R. (2000) ‘Ecological impacts of dams, water diversions and river management on floodplain wetlands in Australia’, Austral Ecology 25 (2): 109–27, http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1442-9993.2000.01036.x.

Martinez-Alfaro, P.E., Montero-Gonzalez, E. and Lopez-Camacho, B. (1992) ‘The impact of the overexploitation of the Campo de Montiel aquifer on the Langunas de Ruiera ecosystem’, in I. Simmers, F. Villarroya and L.F. Rebollo (eds), Selected Papers on Aquifer Overexploitation, Hannover: Verlag Heinz Heise.

McCartney, M. (2009) ‘Living with dams: managing the environmental impact’, Water Policy 11 (1): 121–39 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2009.108> [accessed 2 November 2015].

McDonald, K., Bosshard, P. and Brewer, N. (2009) ‘Exporting dams: China’s hydropower industry goes global’, Journal of Environmental Management 90 (3): 294–302, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.07.023.

Milani, C.R.S., Suyama, B. and Lopes, L.L. (2013) ‘Políticas de Cooperação Internacional para o Desenvolvimento no Norte e no Sul: que lições e desafios para o Brasil? Analise’, São Paulo: Articulação SUL and Fundação Friedrich Ebert.

Mthembu-Salter, G. (2009) Elephants, Ants and Superpowers: Nigeria’s Relations with China, Occasional Paper No. 42, Johannesburg: South African Institute of International Affairs.

Mulowa, A. (2012) ‘Zambia: govt inks K750 billion water project’ <http://allafrica.com/stories/201210310596.html> (posted 31 October 2012) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Nile Basin (2015) ‘About us: member states’, Nile Basin Initiative <www.nilebasin.org/index.php/about-us/member-states> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Patey, L. (2014) The New Kings of Crude: China, India, and the Global Struggle for Oil in Sudan and South Sudan, London: C. Hurst & Co.

Power, M., Mohan, G. and Mullins, M.T. (2012) China’s Resource Diplomacy in Africa: Powering Development?, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Rodriguez-Estreller, T. and Lopez-Bermudez, F. (1992) ‘Some ecological consequences of aquifer overexploitation in wetlands in Spain’, in I. Simmers, F. Villarroya and L.F. Rebollo (eds), Selected Papers on Aquifer Overexploitation, Hannover: Verlag Heinz Heise.

Stella, N. (2007) ‘Central Africa’s “most beautiful waterfall” under threat’, International Rivers [website] <www.internationalrivers.org/resources/central-africa-s-most-beautiful-waterfall-under-threat-2880> (posted 2 November 2007) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Sun, Y., Asante, F. and Birner, R. (2010) ‘Opportunities and challenges of community-based rural drinking water supplies: an analysis of water and sanitation committees in Ghana’, Discussion Paper 01026, Washington DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.

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Urban, F. and Nordensvard, J. (2014) ‘China dams the world: the environmental and social impacts of Chinese dams’, E-International Relations <www.e-ir.info/2014/01/30/china-dams-the-world-the-environmental-and-social-impacts-of-chinese-dams/> (posted 30 January 2014) [accessed 2 November 2015].

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Wang, Z. (2013) ‘Bui dam provides new impetus for Sino-Ghana relations’, GhanaWeb, 24 May <www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=274883> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Water (2015) ‘Millions lack safe water’, Water.org <http://water.org/water-crisis/water-facts/water/> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Water Technology (2015) ‘Bui Dam hydroelectricity project, Bui National Park, Ghana’, Water Technology <www.water-technology.net/projects/bui-dam-hydro-power-ghana/> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Wegerich, K., Dubale, T. and Bruins, B. (2008) ‘Never look a gift horse in the mouth or should you? Upgrading the Hare irrigation system in Southern Ethiopia’, Irrigation and Drainage 57 (4): 470–80, http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ird.361.

World Commission on Dams (2000) Dams and Development: A New Framework for Decision-making. The Report of the World Commission on Dams, London and Sterling VA: Earthscan <www.unep.org/dams/WCD/report/WCD_DAMS%20report.pdf> [accessed 14 December 2015].

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Bosshard, P. (2008) ‘China’s environmental footprint in Africa’, SAIIA Policy Briefing 3, Johannesburg: South African Institute of International Affairs.

Buckley, P.J., Clegg, L.J., Cross, A.R., Liu, X., Voss, H. and Zheng, P. (2007) ‘The determinants of Chinese outward foreign direct investment’, Journal of Business Studies 38 (4): 499–518 <www.jstor.org/stable/4540439> [accessed 9 December 2015].

Bui Power Authority (2015) ‘Project milestones’ <www.buipower.com/node/7> [accessed 14 December 2015].

Cernea, M. (2000) ‘Risks, safeguards and reconstruction: a model for population displacement and resettlement’, Economic and Political Weekly 35 (41): 3659–78 <www.jstor.org/stable/4409836> [accessed 9 December 2015].

CES (2012) ‘Conférence “Water scarcity in Africa: issues and challenges”’, Climat Environnement Société (CES) <www.gisclimat.fr/en/node/1417> (posted 3 October 2012) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Chen, C., Goldstein, A. and Orr, R.J. (2009) ‘Local operations of Chinese construction firms in Africa: an empirical survey’, International Journal of Construction Management 9 (2): 75–85.

Cissé, D. (2013) ‘South-south migration and Sino-African small traders: a comparative study of Chinese in Senegal and Africans in China’, African Review of Economics and Finance 5 (1): 17–30.

Citifmonline (2014) ‘Mahama to commission Kpong water expansion project’, Citi FM Online <www.citifmonline.com/2014/12/23/mahama-commission-kpong-water-expansion-project/#sthash.Y7onfMoH.dpbs> (posted 23 December 2014) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Cruickshank, G. (1995) Proyecto Lago de Texcoco: Rescate Hidroecológico, Mexico: Comisión Nacional del Agua, Gobierno de la Ciudad de México.

Davies, M. (2010) Background Paper for the Perspectives on Global Development 2010 Shifting Wealth: How China is Influencing Africa’s Development, Paris: OECD Development Centre.

Deloitte (2015) Deloitte on Africa: African Construction Trends Report 2014, Johannesburg: Deloitte & Touche <www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/za/Documents/manufacturing/za_africa_construction_trends_2015_10032015.pdf> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Diop, M., Diedhiou, M. and Niasse, M. (2009) ‘West African experience in managing people displaced by large dams’, in J. Skinner, M. Niasse and L. Haas (eds), Sharing the Benefits of Large Dams in West Africa: Natural Resource Issues, London: International Institute for Environment and Development.

Djagba, J.F., Rodenburg, J., Zwart, S.J., Houndagba, C.J. and Kiepe, P. (2014) ‘Failure and success factors of irrigation system developments: a case study from the Ouémé and Zou valleys in Benin’, Irrigation and Drainage 63 (3): 328–39, DOI: 10.1002/ird.1794.

EcoWorld (2008) ‘China’s approach to the African water crisis’, EcoWorld <www.ecoworld.com/business/chinas-approach-to-the-african-water-crisis.html> (posted 29 May 2008) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Esteller, M. and Diaz-Delgado, C. (2002) ‘Environmental effects of aquifer overexploitation: a case study in the highlands of Mexico’, Environmental Management 29 (2): 266–78 <www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11815828> [accessed 2 November 2015].

FOCAC (2005) ‘China and Nigeria sign water supply project agreement’, Forum for China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC), 19 October <www.focac.org/eng/jmhz/t217231.htm> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Forster, M., Zadek, S., Guang, Y., Yu, K., Chen, X. and George, M. (2010) ‘Corporate responsibility in African development: insights from an emerging dialogue’, Working Paper No. 60, China: Institute of West‐Asian and African Studies of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences.

Foster, V., Butterfield, W., Chen, C. and Pushak, N. (2009) Building Bridges: China’s Growing Role as Infrastructure Financier for Sub-Saharan Africa, Washington DC: World Bank <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/2614/480910PUB0Buil101OFFICIAL0USE0ONLY1.pdf?sequence=1> [accessed 2 November 2015].

German, L.A. and Wertz-Kanounnikoff, S. (2012) ‘Sino-Mozambican relations and their implications for forests: a preliminary assessment for the case of Mozambique’, Working Paper 93, Bogor, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research.

Gill, B. and Reilly, J. (2007) ‘The tenuous hold of China Inc. in Africa’, The Washington Quarterly 30 (3): 37–52, http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/wash.2007.30.3.37.

Govender, K. (2015) ‘Africa has hidden wealth in groundwater’, BusinessDay <www.bdlive.co.za/national/science/2015/05/12/africa-has-hidden-wealth-in-groundwater> (posted 12 May 2015) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Government of Ghana (2014) ‘Ghana: Bui and the tale of three hydro dams’ <http://allafrica.com/stories/201401231317.html> (posted 23 January 2014) [accessed 14 December 2015].

Gu, J. (2009) ‘China’s private enterprises in Africa and the implications for African development’, European Journal of Development Research 21 (4): 570–87, http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2009.21.

GWI (2015) ‘China set for next step in African water’, Global Water Intelligence Magazine (GWI) 16 (3).

Hance, J. (2009) ‘Gabonese environmental activist receives prize for standing up to government, Chinese company’, Mongabay <http://news.mongabay.com/2009/0419-hance_essangui.html> (posted 20 April 2009) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Hensengerth, O. (2013) ‘Chinese hydropower companies and environmental norms in countries of the global South: the involvement of Sinohydro in Ghana’s Bui Dam’, Environment, Development and Sustainability 15, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10668-012-9410-4.

International Rivers (n.d. 1) ‘Belinga Dam, Gabon’, International Rivers [website] <www.internationalrivers.org/resources/belinga-dam-gabon-3597> [accessed 2 November 2015].

International Rivers (n.d. 2) ‘Environmental impacts of dams’, International Rivers [website] <www.internationalrivers.org/environmental-impacts-of-dams> [accessed 2 November 2015].

International Rivers (n.d. 3) ‘Human impacts of dams’, International Rivers [website] <www.internationalrivers.org/human-impacts-of-dams> [accessed 16 April 2015].

International Rivers (2010) ‘African dams briefing: International Rivers Africa program’, Berkeley CA: International Rivers <www.internationalrivers.org/files/attached-files/afrdamsbriefingjune2010.pdf> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Kingsford, R. (2000) ‘Ecological impacts of dams, water diversions and river management on floodplain wetlands in Australia’, Austral Ecology 25 (2): 109–27, http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1442-9993.2000.01036.x.

Martinez-Alfaro, P.E., Montero-Gonzalez, E. and Lopez-Camacho, B. (1992) ‘The impact of the overexploitation of the Campo de Montiel aquifer on the Langunas de Ruiera ecosystem’, in I. Simmers, F. Villarroya and L.F. Rebollo (eds), Selected Papers on Aquifer Overexploitation, Hannover: Verlag Heinz Heise.

McCartney, M. (2009) ‘Living with dams: managing the environmental impact’, Water Policy 11 (1): 121–39 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2009.108> [accessed 2 November 2015].

McDonald, K., Bosshard, P. and Brewer, N. (2009) ‘Exporting dams: China’s hydropower industry goes global’, Journal of Environmental Management 90 (3): 294–302, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.07.023.

Milani, C.R.S., Suyama, B. and Lopes, L.L. (2013) ‘Políticas de Cooperação Internacional para o Desenvolvimento no Norte e no Sul: que lições e desafios para o Brasil? Analise’, São Paulo: Articulação SUL and Fundação Friedrich Ebert.

Mthembu-Salter, G. (2009) Elephants, Ants and Superpowers: Nigeria’s Relations with China, Occasional Paper No. 42, Johannesburg: South African Institute of International Affairs.

Mulowa, A. (2012) ‘Zambia: govt inks K750 billion water project’ <http://allafrica.com/stories/201210310596.html> (posted 31 October 2012) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Nile Basin (2015) ‘About us: member states’, Nile Basin Initiative <www.nilebasin.org/index.php/about-us/member-states> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Patey, L. (2014) The New Kings of Crude: China, India, and the Global Struggle for Oil in Sudan and South Sudan, London: C. Hurst & Co.

Power, M., Mohan, G. and Mullins, M.T. (2012) China’s Resource Diplomacy in Africa: Powering Development?, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Rodriguez-Estreller, T. and Lopez-Bermudez, F. (1992) ‘Some ecological consequences of aquifer overexploitation in wetlands in Spain’, in I. Simmers, F. Villarroya and L.F. Rebollo (eds), Selected Papers on Aquifer Overexploitation, Hannover: Verlag Heinz Heise.

Stella, N. (2007) ‘Central Africa’s “most beautiful waterfall” under threat’, International Rivers [website] <www.internationalrivers.org/resources/central-africa-s-most-beautiful-waterfall-under-threat-2880> (posted 2 November 2007) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Sun, Y., Asante, F. and Birner, R. (2010) ‘Opportunities and challenges of community-based rural drinking water supplies: an analysis of water and sanitation committees in Ghana’, Discussion Paper 01026, Washington DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.

UNICEF (2015) ‘World Water Day: nearly 750 million people still without adequate drinking water’, UNICEF press release <www.unicef.org/media/media_81329.html> (posted 20 March 2015) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Urban, F. and Nordensvard, J. (2014) ‘China dams the world: the environmental and social impacts of Chinese dams’, E-International Relations <www.e-ir.info/2014/01/30/china-dams-the-world-the-environmental-and-social-impacts-of-chinese-dams/> (posted 30 January 2014) [accessed 2 November 2015].

USGS (2015) ‘Groundwater depletion’, United States Geological Survey (USGS) <http://water.usgs.gov/edu/gwdepletion.html> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Verhoeven, H. (2013) ‘China shifts power balance in the Nile river basin’, China Dialogue <www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/6178-China-shifts-power-balance-in-the-Nile-river-basin> (posted 4 July 2013) [accessed 2 November 2015].

Wang, Z. (2013) ‘Bui dam provides new impetus for Sino-Ghana relations’, GhanaWeb, 24 May <www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=274883> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Water (2015) ‘Millions lack safe water’, Water.org <http://water.org/water-crisis/water-facts/water/> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Water Technology (2015) ‘Bui Dam hydroelectricity project, Bui National Park, Ghana’, Water Technology <www.water-technology.net/projects/bui-dam-hydro-power-ghana/> [accessed 2 November 2015].

Wegerich, K., Dubale, T. and Bruins, B. (2008) ‘Never look a gift horse in the mouth or should you? Upgrading the Hare irrigation system in Southern Ethiopia’, Irrigation and Drainage 57 (4): 470–80, http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ird.361.

World Commission on Dams (2000) Dams and Development: A New Framework for Decision-making. The Report of the World Commission on Dams, London and Sterling VA: Earthscan <www.unep.org/dams/WCD/report/WCD_DAMS%20report.pdf> [accessed 14 December 2015].