Disposing of children’s diapers with solid waste: a global concern?
Use of a disposable diaper for children’s faeces, a common practice in many developed countries, is likely to become more common in developing countries as well, due to economic growth. According to current standards for safe disposal of children’s faeces, use of disposable diapers is categorized as open defecation in developing countries. With the renewed focus on children’s sanitation in the Post-2015 goals, whether the use of diapers or nappies should be considered unhygienic in all contexts has been questioned. We performed a critical review of the literature with the objectives of determining: 1) what, if any, policies or practices govern disposal of children’s diapers with solid waste; 2) whether disposal of diapers in solid waste was a common practice in developing countries; and 3) whether disposal of diapers with solid waste is a public health concern. We found very little information on policies regarding diaper disposal or how diapers are actually disposed, but did identify several articles that include diapers in studies of the composition and pathogenicity of municipal solid waste. We conclude that despite the potentially important public health consequences of disposal of diapers in the solid waste stream, policies are lacking. There is a paucity of research to inform development of guidelines that reflect the reality of the situation while still safeguarding public health.Al-Khatib, I.A. and Arafat, H.A. (2010) ‘A review of residential solid waste management in the occupied Palestinian Territory: a window for improvement?’ Waste Management Research 28: 481–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X09345274>.
Al-Khatib, I.A., Arafat, H.A., Basheer, T., Shawahneh, H., Salahat, A., Eid, J. and Ali, W. (2007) ‘Trends and problems of solid waste management in developing countries: a case study in seven Palestinian districts’, Waste Management 27: 1910–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2006.11.006>.
Al-Khatib, I.A., Monou, M., Abu Zahra, A.S., Shaheen, H.Q. and Kassinos, D. (2010) ‘Solid waste characterization, quantification and management practices in developing countries. a case study: Nablus district – Palestine’, Journal of Environmental Management 91: 1131–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.01.003>.
Alvarado-Esquivel, C., Liesenfeld, O., Marquez-Conde, J.A., Cisneros-Camacho, A., Estrada-Martinez, S., Martinez-Garcia, S.A., Gonzalez-Herrera, A. and Garcia-Corral, N. (2008) ‘Seroepidemiology of infection with Toxoplasma gondii in waste pickers and waste workers in Durango, Mexico’, Zoonoses Public Health 55: 306–12 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1863-2378.2008.01133.x>.
Arikan, O. and Toroz, I. (1999) ‘Investigation on solid waste recycling in Istanbul’, in City Administration Human and Environment Problems 99 Symposium, Istanbul, Turkey.
Bernache-Perez, G., Sanchez-Colon, S., Garmendia, A.M., Davila-Villarreal, A. and Sanchez-Salazar, M.E. (2001) ‘Solid waste characterisation study in the Guadalajara Metropolitan Zone, Mexico’, Waste Management Research 19: 413–24 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X0101900506>.
Bournemouth Borough Council (n.d.) Bournemouth Borough Council Municipal Waste Management Strategy 2011-2026: Supplementary Report: Recycling & Composting Action Plan 2011–2016, Bournemouth Borough Council.
Breeze, R. (2012) Municipal Solid Waste Management in Dar es Salaam: Draft Baseline Analysis, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Buczynski, B. (2009) Poo Power: Used Diapers Will Fuel U.K. Recycling Plant [online] Care2 <www.care2.com/causes/poo-power-used-diapers-will-fuel-u-k-recycling-plant.html> [accessed 14 May 2015].
Choudhary, B.K. and Varanasi, U.P. (2010) ‘Political economy of waste-pickers: their health and well-being’, Transactions of the Institute of Indian Geographers 32.
Coffey, M. and Coad, A. (2010) Collection of Municipal Solid Waste in Developing Countries, Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT).
Colón, J., Mestre-Montserrat, M., Puig-Ventosa, I. and Sánchez, A. (2013) ‘Performance of compostable baby used diapers in the composting process with the organic fraction of municipal solid waste’, Waste Management 33: 1097–1103 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2013.01.018>.
Curtis, V., Kanki, B., Mertens, T., Traore, E., Diallo, I., Tall, F. and Cousens, S. (1995) ‘Potties, pits and pipes: explaining hygiene behaviour in Burkina Faso’, Social Science and Medicine 41: 383–93.
Delgado, O.B., Ojeda-Benitez, S. and Marquez-Benavides, L. (2007) ‘Comparative analysis of hazardous household waste in two Mexican regions’, Waste Management 27: 792–801.
Dennison, G.J., Dodda, V.A. and Whelan, B. (1996) ‘A socio-economic based survey of household waste characteristics in the city of Dublin, Ireland. I. Waste composition’, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 17: 227–44.
Feachem, R.G., Bradley, D.J., Garelick, H. and Mara, D.D. (1983) Sanitation and Disease: Health Aspects of Excreta and Wastewater Management, New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Federal Ministry of Environment Report, L.I. (2004) Integrated waste management facility study for Abuja in Imam et al., 2008.
Fergutz, O., Dias, S. and Mitlin, D. (2011) ‘Developing urban waste management in Brazil with waste picker organizations’, Environment and Urbanization 23: 579 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247811418742>.
Gerba, C.P., Huber, M.S., Naranjo, J., Rose, J.B. and Bradford, S. (1995) ‘Occurrence of enteric pathogens in composted domestic solid waste containing disposable diapers’, Waste Management Research 13 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X9501300403>.
Gerba, C.P., Tamimi, A.H., Pettigrew, C., Weisbrod, A.V. and Rajagopalan, V. (2011) ‘Sources of microbial pathogens in municipal solid waste landfills in the United States of America’, Waste Management Research 29: 781–90 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X10397968>.
Global Health – Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria (2013) Toxoplasmosis: Epidemiology and Risk Factors [online], Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) <www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/epi.html> [accessed 2 July 2013].
Godelnik, R. (2012) Can Terracycle Convince American Parents to Recycle Dirty Diapers? [online], Triple Pundit <www.triplepundit.com/2012/04/terracycle-convice-american-parents-recycle-dirty-diapers/> [accessed 23 July 2013].
Gorter, A.C., Sandiford, P., Pauw, J., Morales, P., Perez, R.M. and Alberts, H. (1998) ‘Hygiene behaviour in rural Nicaragua in relation to diarrhoea’, International Journal of Epidemiology 27: 1090–100 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/27.6.1090>.
Government of Ghana (1999) Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development Environmental Sanitation Policy, Accra: Government of Ghana.
Government of Ghana (2012) Partnerships for Waste Management [online] <www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/news/features/13576-zoomlion-to-partner-others-to-improve-waste-management> [accessed 15 May 2013; no longer available online].
Guerrero, L.A., Maas, G. and Hogland, W. (2013) ‘Solid waste management challenges for cities in developing countries’, Waste Management 33: 220–32 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.09.008>.
Henry, R.K., Yongsheng, Z. and Jun, D. (2006) ‘Municipal solid waste management challenges in developing countries: Kenyan case study’, Waste Management 26: 92–100 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2005.03.007>.
Howell, R.T. and Waldron, S.K. (1978) ‘Intestinal parasites in Arkansas’, Journal of the Arkansas Medical Society 75: 212–4.
Hunt, C. (1996) ‘Child waste pickers in India: the occupation and its health risks’, Environment and Urbanization 8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/095624789600800209>.
Huttly, S.R., Lanata, C.F., Gonzales, H., Aguilar, I., Fukumoto, M., Verastegui, H. and Black, R.E. (1994) ‘Observations on handwashing and defecation practices in a shanty town of Lima, Peru’, Journal of Diarrhoeal Disease Research 12: 14–8.
Huysman, M. (1994) ‘Waste-picking: a survival strategy for women in Indian cities’, Environment and Urbanization 6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/095624789400600209>.
Imam, A., Mohammed, B., Wilson, D.C. and Cheeseman, C.R. (2008) ‘Solid waste management in Abuja, Nigeria’, Waste Management 28: 468–72 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2007.01.006>.
Jadoon, A., Batool, S.A. and Chaudhry, M.N. (2013) ‘Assessment of factors affecting household solid waste generation and its composition in Gulberg Town, Lahore, Pakistan’, Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management 16(1): 73–81 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10163-013-0146-5>.
Kanat, G. (2010) ‘Municipal solid-waste management in Istanbul’, Waste Management 30: 1737–45 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2010.01.036>.
King County Public Health – Seattle and King County (n.d.) ‘Solid waste disposal in King County’ [online] <www.kingcounty.gov/healthservices/health/ehs/toxic/SolidWaste.aspx> [accessed 15 May 2013].
MA 48 (2006) Wiener Abfallwirtschaftskonzept 2007. IST-Stand der Wiener Abfallwirtschaft (Waste concept of Vienna 2007. Current situation of waste management in Vienna), Preliminary unpublished report, Vienna.
Majorin, F., Freeman, M.C., Barnard, S., Routray, P., Boisson, S. and Clasen, T. (2014) ‘Child faeces disposal practices in rural Orissa: a cross sectional study’, PLoS One 9: e89551 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089551>.
Monavari, S.M., Omrani, G.A., Karbassi, A. and Raof, F.F. (2012) ‘The effects of socioeconomic parameters on household solid-waste generation and composition in developing countries (a case study: Ahvaz, Iran)’, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 184: 1841–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2082-y>.
Morris, J. (1996) ‘Recycling versus incineration: an energy conservation analysis’, Journal of Hazardous Materials 47: 277–93.
Oakley, S.M. and Jimenez, R. (2012) ‘Sustainable sanitary landfills for neglected small cities in developing countries: the semi-mechanized trench method from Villanueva, Honduras’, Waste Management 32: 2535–51 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.07.030>.
Peterson, M.L. (1974) ‘Soiled disposable diapers: a potential source of viruses’, American Journal of Public Health 64: 912–4.
Qu, X.Y., Li, Z.S., Xie, X.Y., Sui, Y.M., Yang, L. and Chen, Y. (2009) ‘Survey of composition and generation rate of household wastes in Beijing, China’, Waste Management 29: 2618–24 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2009.05.014>.
Republic of Rwanda: Ministry of Infrastructure (2010) National Policy & Strategy for Water Supply and Sanitation Services, Republic of Rwanda: Ministry of Infrastructure.
Riber, C., Petersen, C. and Christensen, T.H. (2009) ‘Chemical composition of material fractions in Danish household waste’, Waste Management 29: 1251–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2008.09.013>.
Salhofer, S., Obersteiner, G., Schneider, F. and Lebersorger, S. (2008) ‘Potentials for the prevention of municipal solid waste’, Waste Management 28: 245–59 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2007.02.026>.
Taboada-González, P., Armijo-De-Vega, C., Aguilar-Virgen, Q. and Ojeda-Benítez, S. (2010) ‘Household solid waste characteristics and management in rural communities’, The Open Waste Management Journal 3: 167–73.
Thanh, N.P., Matsui, Y. and Fujiwara, T. (2010) ‘Household solid waste generation and characteristics in a Mekong Delta city, Vietnam’, Journal of Environmental Management 91: 2307–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.06.016>.
The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in South Africa (CSIR) (2000) Guidelines for Human Settlement Planning and Design (The Red Book), Chapter 11, South Africa: CSIR.
Traore, E., Cousens, S., Curtis, V., Mertens, T., Tall, F., Traore, A., Kanki, B., Diallo, I., Rochereau, A., Chiron, J.P. (1994) ‘Child defecation behaviour, stool disposal practices, and childhood diarrhoea in Burkina Faso: results from a case-control study’, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 48: 270–5.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (2009) Municipal Solid Waste Generation, Recycling, and Disposal in the States: Facts and Figures for 2008, Washington, DC: US EPA.
US EPA (2011) Municipal Solid Waste in the United States: 2011 Facts and Figures, Washington, DC: EPA.
Vernacchio, L., Vezina, R.M., Mitchell, A.A., Lesko, S.M., Plaut, A.G. and Acheson, D.W. (2006) ‘Diarrhea in American infants and young children in the community setting: incidence, clinical presentation and microbiology’, Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 25: 2–7.
Warren County (1999) Warren County: Municipal Solid Waste Ordinance [pdf], North Carolina: Warren County <www.warrencountync.com/_fileUploads/forms/244_SOLID_WASTE_ORDINANCE.pdf> [accessed 15 May 2013].
Waste Management Department (n.d.) ‘City of Accra: waste management’ [online] Accra Metropolitan Assembly <http://ama.gov.gh/ama/page/5122/waste-management> [accessed 15 May 2013].
Watford Borough Council (n.d.) ‘Rubbish and waste FAQS’ [online] <www.watford.gov.uk/ccm/content/ehl/environmental-services/rubbish-and-waste-faqs.en?page=3#internalSection2> [accessed 17 May 2013].
WHO/UNICEF (2012) Report of a WHO/UNICEF JMP Technical Consultation on the Measurability of Global WASH Indicators for Post-2015 Monitoring, Geneva: WHO and New York: UNICEF.
WHO/UNICEF (2014) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2014 Update, Geneva: WHO and New York: UNICEF.
Yeager, B.A., Huttly, S.R., Bartolini, R., Rojas, M. and Lanata, C.F. (1999) ‘Defecation practices of young children in a Peruvian shanty town’, Social Science and Medicine 49: 531–41.
Al-Khatib, I.A. and Arafat, H.A. (2010) ‘A review of residential solid waste management in the occupied Palestinian Territory: a window for improvement?’ Waste Management Research 28: 481–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X09345274>.
Al-Khatib, I.A., Arafat, H.A., Basheer, T., Shawahneh, H., Salahat, A., Eid, J. and Ali, W. (2007) ‘Trends and problems of solid waste management in developing countries: a case study in seven Palestinian districts’, Waste Management 27: 1910–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2006.11.006>.
Al-Khatib, I.A., Monou, M., Abu Zahra, A.S., Shaheen, H.Q. and Kassinos, D. (2010) ‘Solid waste characterization, quantification and management practices in developing countries. a case study: Nablus district – Palestine’, Journal of Environmental Management 91: 1131–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.01.003>.
Alvarado-Esquivel, C., Liesenfeld, O., Marquez-Conde, J.A., Cisneros-Camacho, A., Estrada-Martinez, S., Martinez-Garcia, S.A., Gonzalez-Herrera, A. and Garcia-Corral, N. (2008) ‘Seroepidemiology of infection with Toxoplasma gondii in waste pickers and waste workers in Durango, Mexico’, Zoonoses Public Health 55: 306–12 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1863-2378.2008.01133.x>.
Arikan, O. and Toroz, I. (1999) ‘Investigation on solid waste recycling in Istanbul’, in City Administration Human and Environment Problems 99 Symposium, Istanbul, Turkey.
Bernache-Perez, G., Sanchez-Colon, S., Garmendia, A.M., Davila-Villarreal, A. and Sanchez-Salazar, M.E. (2001) ‘Solid waste characterisation study in the Guadalajara Metropolitan Zone, Mexico’, Waste Management Research 19: 413–24 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X0101900506>.
Bournemouth Borough Council (n.d.) Bournemouth Borough Council Municipal Waste Management Strategy 2011-2026: Supplementary Report: Recycling & Composting Action Plan 2011–2016, Bournemouth Borough Council.
Breeze, R. (2012) Municipal Solid Waste Management in Dar es Salaam: Draft Baseline Analysis, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Buczynski, B. (2009) Poo Power: Used Diapers Will Fuel U.K. Recycling Plant [online] Care2 <www.care2.com/causes/poo-power-used-diapers-will-fuel-u-k-recycling-plant.html> [accessed 14 May 2015].
Choudhary, B.K. and Varanasi, U.P. (2010) ‘Political economy of waste-pickers: their health and well-being’, Transactions of the Institute of Indian Geographers 32.
Coffey, M. and Coad, A. (2010) Collection of Municipal Solid Waste in Developing Countries, Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT).
Colón, J., Mestre-Montserrat, M., Puig-Ventosa, I. and Sánchez, A. (2013) ‘Performance of compostable baby used diapers in the composting process with the organic fraction of municipal solid waste’, Waste Management 33: 1097–1103 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2013.01.018>.
Curtis, V., Kanki, B., Mertens, T., Traore, E., Diallo, I., Tall, F. and Cousens, S. (1995) ‘Potties, pits and pipes: explaining hygiene behaviour in Burkina Faso’, Social Science and Medicine 41: 383–93.
Delgado, O.B., Ojeda-Benitez, S. and Marquez-Benavides, L. (2007) ‘Comparative analysis of hazardous household waste in two Mexican regions’, Waste Management 27: 792–801.
Dennison, G.J., Dodda, V.A. and Whelan, B. (1996) ‘A socio-economic based survey of household waste characteristics in the city of Dublin, Ireland. I. Waste composition’, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 17: 227–44.
Feachem, R.G., Bradley, D.J., Garelick, H. and Mara, D.D. (1983) Sanitation and Disease: Health Aspects of Excreta and Wastewater Management, New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Federal Ministry of Environment Report, L.I. (2004) Integrated waste management facility study for Abuja in Imam et al., 2008.
Fergutz, O., Dias, S. and Mitlin, D. (2011) ‘Developing urban waste management in Brazil with waste picker organizations’, Environment and Urbanization 23: 579 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247811418742>.
Gerba, C.P., Huber, M.S., Naranjo, J., Rose, J.B. and Bradford, S. (1995) ‘Occurrence of enteric pathogens in composted domestic solid waste containing disposable diapers’, Waste Management Research 13 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X9501300403>.
Gerba, C.P., Tamimi, A.H., Pettigrew, C., Weisbrod, A.V. and Rajagopalan, V. (2011) ‘Sources of microbial pathogens in municipal solid waste landfills in the United States of America’, Waste Management Research 29: 781–90 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X10397968>.
Global Health – Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria (2013) Toxoplasmosis: Epidemiology and Risk Factors [online], Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) <www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/epi.html> [accessed 2 July 2013].
Godelnik, R. (2012) Can Terracycle Convince American Parents to Recycle Dirty Diapers? [online], Triple Pundit <www.triplepundit.com/2012/04/terracycle-convice-american-parents-recycle-dirty-diapers/> [accessed 23 July 2013].
Gorter, A.C., Sandiford, P., Pauw, J., Morales, P., Perez, R.M. and Alberts, H. (1998) ‘Hygiene behaviour in rural Nicaragua in relation to diarrhoea’, International Journal of Epidemiology 27: 1090–100 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/27.6.1090>.
Government of Ghana (1999) Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development Environmental Sanitation Policy, Accra: Government of Ghana.
Government of Ghana (2012) Partnerships for Waste Management [online] <www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/news/features/13576-zoomlion-to-partner-others-to-improve-waste-management> [accessed 15 May 2013; no longer available online].
Guerrero, L.A., Maas, G. and Hogland, W. (2013) ‘Solid waste management challenges for cities in developing countries’, Waste Management 33: 220–32 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.09.008>.
Henry, R.K., Yongsheng, Z. and Jun, D. (2006) ‘Municipal solid waste management challenges in developing countries: Kenyan case study’, Waste Management 26: 92–100 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2005.03.007>.
Howell, R.T. and Waldron, S.K. (1978) ‘Intestinal parasites in Arkansas’, Journal of the Arkansas Medical Society 75: 212–4.
Hunt, C. (1996) ‘Child waste pickers in India: the occupation and its health risks’, Environment and Urbanization 8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/095624789600800209>.
Huttly, S.R., Lanata, C.F., Gonzales, H., Aguilar, I., Fukumoto, M., Verastegui, H. and Black, R.E. (1994) ‘Observations on handwashing and defecation practices in a shanty town of Lima, Peru’, Journal of Diarrhoeal Disease Research 12: 14–8.
Huysman, M. (1994) ‘Waste-picking: a survival strategy for women in Indian cities’, Environment and Urbanization 6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/095624789400600209>.
Imam, A., Mohammed, B., Wilson, D.C. and Cheeseman, C.R. (2008) ‘Solid waste management in Abuja, Nigeria’, Waste Management 28: 468–72 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2007.01.006>.
Jadoon, A., Batool, S.A. and Chaudhry, M.N. (2013) ‘Assessment of factors affecting household solid waste generation and its composition in Gulberg Town, Lahore, Pakistan’, Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management 16(1): 73–81 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10163-013-0146-5>.
Kanat, G. (2010) ‘Municipal solid-waste management in Istanbul’, Waste Management 30: 1737–45 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2010.01.036>.
King County Public Health – Seattle and King County (n.d.) ‘Solid waste disposal in King County’ [online] <www.kingcounty.gov/healthservices/health/ehs/toxic/SolidWaste.aspx> [accessed 15 May 2013].
MA 48 (2006) Wiener Abfallwirtschaftskonzept 2007. IST-Stand der Wiener Abfallwirtschaft (Waste concept of Vienna 2007. Current situation of waste management in Vienna), Preliminary unpublished report, Vienna.
Majorin, F., Freeman, M.C., Barnard, S., Routray, P., Boisson, S. and Clasen, T. (2014) ‘Child faeces disposal practices in rural Orissa: a cross sectional study’, PLoS One 9: e89551 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089551>.
Monavari, S.M., Omrani, G.A., Karbassi, A. and Raof, F.F. (2012) ‘The effects of socioeconomic parameters on household solid-waste generation and composition in developing countries (a case study: Ahvaz, Iran)’, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 184: 1841–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2082-y>.
Morris, J. (1996) ‘Recycling versus incineration: an energy conservation analysis’, Journal of Hazardous Materials 47: 277–93.
Oakley, S.M. and Jimenez, R. (2012) ‘Sustainable sanitary landfills for neglected small cities in developing countries: the semi-mechanized trench method from Villanueva, Honduras’, Waste Management 32: 2535–51 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.07.030>.
Peterson, M.L. (1974) ‘Soiled disposable diapers: a potential source of viruses’, American Journal of Public Health 64: 912–4.
Qu, X.Y., Li, Z.S., Xie, X.Y., Sui, Y.M., Yang, L. and Chen, Y. (2009) ‘Survey of composition and generation rate of household wastes in Beijing, China’, Waste Management 29: 2618–24 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2009.05.014>.
Republic of Rwanda: Ministry of Infrastructure (2010) National Policy & Strategy for Water Supply and Sanitation Services, Republic of Rwanda: Ministry of Infrastructure.
Riber, C., Petersen, C. and Christensen, T.H. (2009) ‘Chemical composition of material fractions in Danish household waste’, Waste Management 29: 1251–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2008.09.013>.
Salhofer, S., Obersteiner, G., Schneider, F. and Lebersorger, S. (2008) ‘Potentials for the prevention of municipal solid waste’, Waste Management 28: 245–59 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2007.02.026>.
Taboada-González, P., Armijo-De-Vega, C., Aguilar-Virgen, Q. and Ojeda-Benítez, S. (2010) ‘Household solid waste characteristics and management in rural communities’, The Open Waste Management Journal 3: 167–73.
Thanh, N.P., Matsui, Y. and Fujiwara, T. (2010) ‘Household solid waste generation and characteristics in a Mekong Delta city, Vietnam’, Journal of Environmental Management 91: 2307–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.06.016>.
The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in South Africa (CSIR) (2000) Guidelines for Human Settlement Planning and Design (The Red Book), Chapter 11, South Africa: CSIR.
Traore, E., Cousens, S., Curtis, V., Mertens, T., Tall, F., Traore, A., Kanki, B., Diallo, I., Rochereau, A., Chiron, J.P. (1994) ‘Child defecation behaviour, stool disposal practices, and childhood diarrhoea in Burkina Faso: results from a case-control study’, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 48: 270–5.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (2009) Municipal Solid Waste Generation, Recycling, and Disposal in the States: Facts and Figures for 2008, Washington, DC: US EPA.
US EPA (2011) Municipal Solid Waste in the United States: 2011 Facts and Figures, Washington, DC: EPA.
Vernacchio, L., Vezina, R.M., Mitchell, A.A., Lesko, S.M., Plaut, A.G. and Acheson, D.W. (2006) ‘Diarrhea in American infants and young children in the community setting: incidence, clinical presentation and microbiology’, Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 25: 2–7.
Warren County (1999) Warren County: Municipal Solid Waste Ordinance [pdf], North Carolina: Warren County <www.warrencountync.com/_fileUploads/forms/244_SOLID_WASTE_ORDINANCE.pdf> [accessed 15 May 2013].
Waste Management Department (n.d.) ‘City of Accra: waste management’ [online] Accra Metropolitan Assembly <http://ama.gov.gh/ama/page/5122/waste-management> [accessed 15 May 2013].
Watford Borough Council (n.d.) ‘Rubbish and waste FAQS’ [online] <www.watford.gov.uk/ccm/content/ehl/environmental-services/rubbish-and-waste-faqs.en?page=3#internalSection2> [accessed 17 May 2013].
WHO/UNICEF (2012) Report of a WHO/UNICEF JMP Technical Consultation on the Measurability of Global WASH Indicators for Post-2015 Monitoring, Geneva: WHO and New York: UNICEF.
WHO/UNICEF (2014) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2014 Update, Geneva: WHO and New York: UNICEF.
Yeager, B.A., Huttly, S.R., Bartolini, R., Rojas, M. and Lanata, C.F. (1999) ‘Defecation practices of young children in a Peruvian shanty town’, Social Science and Medicine 49: 531–41.
Al-Khatib, I.A. and Arafat, H.A. (2010) ‘A review of residential solid waste management in the occupied Palestinian Territory: a window for improvement?’ Waste Management Research 28: 481–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X09345274>.
Al-Khatib, I.A., Arafat, H.A., Basheer, T., Shawahneh, H., Salahat, A., Eid, J. and Ali, W. (2007) ‘Trends and problems of solid waste management in developing countries: a case study in seven Palestinian districts’, Waste Management 27: 1910–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2006.11.006>.
Al-Khatib, I.A., Monou, M., Abu Zahra, A.S., Shaheen, H.Q. and Kassinos, D. (2010) ‘Solid waste characterization, quantification and management practices in developing countries. a case study: Nablus district – Palestine’, Journal of Environmental Management 91: 1131–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.01.003>.
Alvarado-Esquivel, C., Liesenfeld, O., Marquez-Conde, J.A., Cisneros-Camacho, A., Estrada-Martinez, S., Martinez-Garcia, S.A., Gonzalez-Herrera, A. and Garcia-Corral, N. (2008) ‘Seroepidemiology of infection with Toxoplasma gondii in waste pickers and waste workers in Durango, Mexico’, Zoonoses Public Health 55: 306–12 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1863-2378.2008.01133.x>.
Arikan, O. and Toroz, I. (1999) ‘Investigation on solid waste recycling in Istanbul’, in City Administration Human and Environment Problems 99 Symposium, Istanbul, Turkey.
Bernache-Perez, G., Sanchez-Colon, S., Garmendia, A.M., Davila-Villarreal, A. and Sanchez-Salazar, M.E. (2001) ‘Solid waste characterisation study in the Guadalajara Metropolitan Zone, Mexico’, Waste Management Research 19: 413–24 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X0101900506>.
Bournemouth Borough Council (n.d.) Bournemouth Borough Council Municipal Waste Management Strategy 2011-2026: Supplementary Report: Recycling & Composting Action Plan 2011–2016, Bournemouth Borough Council.
Breeze, R. (2012) Municipal Solid Waste Management in Dar es Salaam: Draft Baseline Analysis, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Buczynski, B. (2009) Poo Power: Used Diapers Will Fuel U.K. Recycling Plant [online] Care2 <www.care2.com/causes/poo-power-used-diapers-will-fuel-u-k-recycling-plant.html> [accessed 14 May 2015].
Choudhary, B.K. and Varanasi, U.P. (2010) ‘Political economy of waste-pickers: their health and well-being’, Transactions of the Institute of Indian Geographers 32.
Coffey, M. and Coad, A. (2010) Collection of Municipal Solid Waste in Developing Countries, Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT).
Colón, J., Mestre-Montserrat, M., Puig-Ventosa, I. and Sánchez, A. (2013) ‘Performance of compostable baby used diapers in the composting process with the organic fraction of municipal solid waste’, Waste Management 33: 1097–1103 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2013.01.018>.
Curtis, V., Kanki, B., Mertens, T., Traore, E., Diallo, I., Tall, F. and Cousens, S. (1995) ‘Potties, pits and pipes: explaining hygiene behaviour in Burkina Faso’, Social Science and Medicine 41: 383–93.
Delgado, O.B., Ojeda-Benitez, S. and Marquez-Benavides, L. (2007) ‘Comparative analysis of hazardous household waste in two Mexican regions’, Waste Management 27: 792–801.
Dennison, G.J., Dodda, V.A. and Whelan, B. (1996) ‘A socio-economic based survey of household waste characteristics in the city of Dublin, Ireland. I. Waste composition’, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 17: 227–44.
Feachem, R.G., Bradley, D.J., Garelick, H. and Mara, D.D. (1983) Sanitation and Disease: Health Aspects of Excreta and Wastewater Management, New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Federal Ministry of Environment Report, L.I. (2004) Integrated waste management facility study for Abuja in Imam et al., 2008.
Fergutz, O., Dias, S. and Mitlin, D. (2011) ‘Developing urban waste management in Brazil with waste picker organizations’, Environment and Urbanization 23: 579 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247811418742>.
Gerba, C.P., Huber, M.S., Naranjo, J., Rose, J.B. and Bradford, S. (1995) ‘Occurrence of enteric pathogens in composted domestic solid waste containing disposable diapers’, Waste Management Research 13 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X9501300403>.
Gerba, C.P., Tamimi, A.H., Pettigrew, C., Weisbrod, A.V. and Rajagopalan, V. (2011) ‘Sources of microbial pathogens in municipal solid waste landfills in the United States of America’, Waste Management Research 29: 781–90 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X10397968>.
Global Health – Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria (2013) Toxoplasmosis: Epidemiology and Risk Factors [online], Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) <www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/epi.html> [accessed 2 July 2013].
Godelnik, R. (2012) Can Terracycle Convince American Parents to Recycle Dirty Diapers? [online], Triple Pundit <www.triplepundit.com/2012/04/terracycle-convice-american-parents-recycle-dirty-diapers/> [accessed 23 July 2013].
Gorter, A.C., Sandiford, P., Pauw, J., Morales, P., Perez, R.M. and Alberts, H. (1998) ‘Hygiene behaviour in rural Nicaragua in relation to diarrhoea’, International Journal of Epidemiology 27: 1090–100 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/27.6.1090>.
Government of Ghana (1999) Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development Environmental Sanitation Policy, Accra: Government of Ghana.
Government of Ghana (2012) Partnerships for Waste Management [online] <www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/news/features/13576-zoomlion-to-partner-others-to-improve-waste-management> [accessed 15 May 2013; no longer available online].
Guerrero, L.A., Maas, G. and Hogland, W. (2013) ‘Solid waste management challenges for cities in developing countries’, Waste Management 33: 220–32 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.09.008>.
Henry, R.K., Yongsheng, Z. and Jun, D. (2006) ‘Municipal solid waste management challenges in developing countries: Kenyan case study’, Waste Management 26: 92–100 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2005.03.007>.
Howell, R.T. and Waldron, S.K. (1978) ‘Intestinal parasites in Arkansas’, Journal of the Arkansas Medical Society 75: 212–4.
Hunt, C. (1996) ‘Child waste pickers in India: the occupation and its health risks’, Environment and Urbanization 8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/095624789600800209>.
Huttly, S.R., Lanata, C.F., Gonzales, H., Aguilar, I., Fukumoto, M., Verastegui, H. and Black, R.E. (1994) ‘Observations on handwashing and defecation practices in a shanty town of Lima, Peru’, Journal of Diarrhoeal Disease Research 12: 14–8.
Huysman, M. (1994) ‘Waste-picking: a survival strategy for women in Indian cities’, Environment and Urbanization 6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/095624789400600209>.
Imam, A., Mohammed, B., Wilson, D.C. and Cheeseman, C.R. (2008) ‘Solid waste management in Abuja, Nigeria’, Waste Management 28: 468–72 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2007.01.006>.
Jadoon, A., Batool, S.A. and Chaudhry, M.N. (2013) ‘Assessment of factors affecting household solid waste generation and its composition in Gulberg Town, Lahore, Pakistan’, Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management 16(1): 73–81 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10163-013-0146-5>.
Kanat, G. (2010) ‘Municipal solid-waste management in Istanbul’, Waste Management 30: 1737–45 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2010.01.036>.
King County Public Health – Seattle and King County (n.d.) ‘Solid waste disposal in King County’ [online] <www.kingcounty.gov/healthservices/health/ehs/toxic/SolidWaste.aspx> [accessed 15 May 2013].
MA 48 (2006) Wiener Abfallwirtschaftskonzept 2007. IST-Stand der Wiener Abfallwirtschaft (Waste concept of Vienna 2007. Current situation of waste management in Vienna), Preliminary unpublished report, Vienna.
Majorin, F., Freeman, M.C., Barnard, S., Routray, P., Boisson, S. and Clasen, T. (2014) ‘Child faeces disposal practices in rural Orissa: a cross sectional study’, PLoS One 9: e89551 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089551>.
Monavari, S.M., Omrani, G.A., Karbassi, A. and Raof, F.F. (2012) ‘The effects of socioeconomic parameters on household solid-waste generation and composition in developing countries (a case study: Ahvaz, Iran)’, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 184: 1841–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2082-y>.
Morris, J. (1996) ‘Recycling versus incineration: an energy conservation analysis’, Journal of Hazardous Materials 47: 277–93.
Oakley, S.M. and Jimenez, R. (2012) ‘Sustainable sanitary landfills for neglected small cities in developing countries: the semi-mechanized trench method from Villanueva, Honduras’, Waste Management 32: 2535–51 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.07.030>.
Peterson, M.L. (1974) ‘Soiled disposable diapers: a potential source of viruses’, American Journal of Public Health 64: 912–4.
Qu, X.Y., Li, Z.S., Xie, X.Y., Sui, Y.M., Yang, L. and Chen, Y. (2009) ‘Survey of composition and generation rate of household wastes in Beijing, China’, Waste Management 29: 2618–24 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2009.05.014>.
Republic of Rwanda: Ministry of Infrastructure (2010) National Policy & Strategy for Water Supply and Sanitation Services, Republic of Rwanda: Ministry of Infrastructure.
Riber, C., Petersen, C. and Christensen, T.H. (2009) ‘Chemical composition of material fractions in Danish household waste’, Waste Management 29: 1251–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2008.09.013>.
Salhofer, S., Obersteiner, G., Schneider, F. and Lebersorger, S. (2008) ‘Potentials for the prevention of municipal solid waste’, Waste Management 28: 245–59 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2007.02.026>.
Taboada-González, P., Armijo-De-Vega, C., Aguilar-Virgen, Q. and Ojeda-Benítez, S. (2010) ‘Household solid waste characteristics and management in rural communities’, The Open Waste Management Journal 3: 167–73.
Thanh, N.P., Matsui, Y. and Fujiwara, T. (2010) ‘Household solid waste generation and characteristics in a Mekong Delta city, Vietnam’, Journal of Environmental Management 91: 2307–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.06.016>.
The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in South Africa (CSIR) (2000) Guidelines for Human Settlement Planning and Design (The Red Book), Chapter 11, South Africa: CSIR.
Traore, E., Cousens, S., Curtis, V., Mertens, T., Tall, F., Traore, A., Kanki, B., Diallo, I., Rochereau, A., Chiron, J.P. (1994) ‘Child defecation behaviour, stool disposal practices, and childhood diarrhoea in Burkina Faso: results from a case-control study’, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 48: 270–5.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (2009) Municipal Solid Waste Generation, Recycling, and Disposal in the States: Facts and Figures for 2008, Washington, DC: US EPA.
US EPA (2011) Municipal Solid Waste in the United States: 2011 Facts and Figures, Washington, DC: EPA.
Vernacchio, L., Vezina, R.M., Mitchell, A.A., Lesko, S.M., Plaut, A.G. and Acheson, D.W. (2006) ‘Diarrhea in American infants and young children in the community setting: incidence, clinical presentation and microbiology’, Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 25: 2–7.
Warren County (1999) Warren County: Municipal Solid Waste Ordinance [pdf], North Carolina: Warren County <www.warrencountync.com/_fileUploads/forms/244_SOLID_WASTE_ORDINANCE.pdf> [accessed 15 May 2013].
Waste Management Department (n.d.) ‘City of Accra: waste management’ [online] Accra Metropolitan Assembly <http://ama.gov.gh/ama/page/5122/waste-management> [accessed 15 May 2013].
Watford Borough Council (n.d.) ‘Rubbish and waste FAQS’ [online] <www.watford.gov.uk/ccm/content/ehl/environmental-services/rubbish-and-waste-faqs.en?page=3#internalSection2> [accessed 17 May 2013].
WHO/UNICEF (2012) Report of a WHO/UNICEF JMP Technical Consultation on the Measurability of Global WASH Indicators for Post-2015 Monitoring, Geneva: WHO and New York: UNICEF.
WHO/UNICEF (2014) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2014 Update, Geneva: WHO and New York: UNICEF.
Yeager, B.A., Huttly, S.R., Bartolini, R., Rojas, M. and Lanata, C.F. (1999) ‘Defecation practices of young children in a Peruvian shanty town’, Social Science and Medicine 49: 531–41.
Al-Khatib, I.A. and Arafat, H.A. (2010) ‘A review of residential solid waste management in the occupied Palestinian Territory: a window for improvement?’ Waste Management Research 28: 481–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X09345274>.
Al-Khatib, I.A., Arafat, H.A., Basheer, T., Shawahneh, H., Salahat, A., Eid, J. and Ali, W. (2007) ‘Trends and problems of solid waste management in developing countries: a case study in seven Palestinian districts’, Waste Management 27: 1910–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2006.11.006>.
Al-Khatib, I.A., Monou, M., Abu Zahra, A.S., Shaheen, H.Q. and Kassinos, D. (2010) ‘Solid waste characterization, quantification and management practices in developing countries. a case study: Nablus district – Palestine’, Journal of Environmental Management 91: 1131–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.01.003>.
Alvarado-Esquivel, C., Liesenfeld, O., Marquez-Conde, J.A., Cisneros-Camacho, A., Estrada-Martinez, S., Martinez-Garcia, S.A., Gonzalez-Herrera, A. and Garcia-Corral, N. (2008) ‘Seroepidemiology of infection with Toxoplasma gondii in waste pickers and waste workers in Durango, Mexico’, Zoonoses Public Health 55: 306–12 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1863-2378.2008.01133.x>.
Arikan, O. and Toroz, I. (1999) ‘Investigation on solid waste recycling in Istanbul’, in City Administration Human and Environment Problems 99 Symposium, Istanbul, Turkey.
Bernache-Perez, G., Sanchez-Colon, S., Garmendia, A.M., Davila-Villarreal, A. and Sanchez-Salazar, M.E. (2001) ‘Solid waste characterisation study in the Guadalajara Metropolitan Zone, Mexico’, Waste Management Research 19: 413–24 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X0101900506>.
Bournemouth Borough Council (n.d.) Bournemouth Borough Council Municipal Waste Management Strategy 2011-2026: Supplementary Report: Recycling & Composting Action Plan 2011–2016, Bournemouth Borough Council.
Breeze, R. (2012) Municipal Solid Waste Management in Dar es Salaam: Draft Baseline Analysis, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Buczynski, B. (2009) Poo Power: Used Diapers Will Fuel U.K. Recycling Plant [online] Care2 <www.care2.com/causes/poo-power-used-diapers-will-fuel-u-k-recycling-plant.html> [accessed 14 May 2015].
Choudhary, B.K. and Varanasi, U.P. (2010) ‘Political economy of waste-pickers: their health and well-being’, Transactions of the Institute of Indian Geographers 32.
Coffey, M. and Coad, A. (2010) Collection of Municipal Solid Waste in Developing Countries, Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT).
Colón, J., Mestre-Montserrat, M., Puig-Ventosa, I. and Sánchez, A. (2013) ‘Performance of compostable baby used diapers in the composting process with the organic fraction of municipal solid waste’, Waste Management 33: 1097–1103 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2013.01.018>.
Curtis, V., Kanki, B., Mertens, T., Traore, E., Diallo, I., Tall, F. and Cousens, S. (1995) ‘Potties, pits and pipes: explaining hygiene behaviour in Burkina Faso’, Social Science and Medicine 41: 383–93.
Delgado, O.B., Ojeda-Benitez, S. and Marquez-Benavides, L. (2007) ‘Comparative analysis of hazardous household waste in two Mexican regions’, Waste Management 27: 792–801.
Dennison, G.J., Dodda, V.A. and Whelan, B. (1996) ‘A socio-economic based survey of household waste characteristics in the city of Dublin, Ireland. I. Waste composition’, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 17: 227–44.
Feachem, R.G., Bradley, D.J., Garelick, H. and Mara, D.D. (1983) Sanitation and Disease: Health Aspects of Excreta and Wastewater Management, New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Federal Ministry of Environment Report, L.I. (2004) Integrated waste management facility study for Abuja in Imam et al., 2008.
Fergutz, O., Dias, S. and Mitlin, D. (2011) ‘Developing urban waste management in Brazil with waste picker organizations’, Environment and Urbanization 23: 579 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247811418742>.
Gerba, C.P., Huber, M.S., Naranjo, J., Rose, J.B. and Bradford, S. (1995) ‘Occurrence of enteric pathogens in composted domestic solid waste containing disposable diapers’, Waste Management Research 13 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X9501300403>.
Gerba, C.P., Tamimi, A.H., Pettigrew, C., Weisbrod, A.V. and Rajagopalan, V. (2011) ‘Sources of microbial pathogens in municipal solid waste landfills in the United States of America’, Waste Management Research 29: 781–90 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X10397968>.
Global Health – Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria (2013) Toxoplasmosis: Epidemiology and Risk Factors [online], Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) <www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/epi.html> [accessed 2 July 2013].
Godelnik, R. (2012) Can Terracycle Convince American Parents to Recycle Dirty Diapers? [online], Triple Pundit <www.triplepundit.com/2012/04/terracycle-convice-american-parents-recycle-dirty-diapers/> [accessed 23 July 2013].
Gorter, A.C., Sandiford, P., Pauw, J., Morales, P., Perez, R.M. and Alberts, H. (1998) ‘Hygiene behaviour in rural Nicaragua in relation to diarrhoea’, International Journal of Epidemiology 27: 1090–100 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/27.6.1090>.
Government of Ghana (1999) Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development Environmental Sanitation Policy, Accra: Government of Ghana.
Government of Ghana (2012) Partnerships for Waste Management [online] <www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/news/features/13576-zoomlion-to-partner-others-to-improve-waste-management> [accessed 15 May 2013; no longer available online].
Guerrero, L.A., Maas, G. and Hogland, W. (2013) ‘Solid waste management challenges for cities in developing countries’, Waste Management 33: 220–32 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.09.008>.
Henry, R.K., Yongsheng, Z. and Jun, D. (2006) ‘Municipal solid waste management challenges in developing countries: Kenyan case study’, Waste Management 26: 92–100 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2005.03.007>.
Howell, R.T. and Waldron, S.K. (1978) ‘Intestinal parasites in Arkansas’, Journal of the Arkansas Medical Society 75: 212–4.
Hunt, C. (1996) ‘Child waste pickers in India: the occupation and its health risks’, Environment and Urbanization 8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/095624789600800209>.
Huttly, S.R., Lanata, C.F., Gonzales, H., Aguilar, I., Fukumoto, M., Verastegui, H. and Black, R.E. (1994) ‘Observations on handwashing and defecation practices in a shanty town of Lima, Peru’, Journal of Diarrhoeal Disease Research 12: 14–8.
Huysman, M. (1994) ‘Waste-picking: a survival strategy for women in Indian cities’, Environment and Urbanization 6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/095624789400600209>.
Imam, A., Mohammed, B., Wilson, D.C. and Cheeseman, C.R. (2008) ‘Solid waste management in Abuja, Nigeria’, Waste Management 28: 468–72 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2007.01.006>.
Jadoon, A., Batool, S.A. and Chaudhry, M.N. (2013) ‘Assessment of factors affecting household solid waste generation and its composition in Gulberg Town, Lahore, Pakistan’, Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management 16(1): 73–81 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10163-013-0146-5>.
Kanat, G. (2010) ‘Municipal solid-waste management in Istanbul’, Waste Management 30: 1737–45 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2010.01.036>.
King County Public Health – Seattle and King County (n.d.) ‘Solid waste disposal in King County’ [online] <www.kingcounty.gov/healthservices/health/ehs/toxic/SolidWaste.aspx> [accessed 15 May 2013].
MA 48 (2006) Wiener Abfallwirtschaftskonzept 2007. IST-Stand der Wiener Abfallwirtschaft (Waste concept of Vienna 2007. Current situation of waste management in Vienna), Preliminary unpublished report, Vienna.
Majorin, F., Freeman, M.C., Barnard, S., Routray, P., Boisson, S. and Clasen, T. (2014) ‘Child faeces disposal practices in rural Orissa: a cross sectional study’, PLoS One 9: e89551 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089551>.
Monavari, S.M., Omrani, G.A., Karbassi, A. and Raof, F.F. (2012) ‘The effects of socioeconomic parameters on household solid-waste generation and composition in developing countries (a case study: Ahvaz, Iran)’, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 184: 1841–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2082-y>.
Morris, J. (1996) ‘Recycling versus incineration: an energy conservation analysis’, Journal of Hazardous Materials 47: 277–93.
Oakley, S.M. and Jimenez, R. (2012) ‘Sustainable sanitary landfills for neglected small cities in developing countries: the semi-mechanized trench method from Villanueva, Honduras’, Waste Management 32: 2535–51 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.07.030>.
Peterson, M.L. (1974) ‘Soiled disposable diapers: a potential source of viruses’, American Journal of Public Health 64: 912–4.
Qu, X.Y., Li, Z.S., Xie, X.Y., Sui, Y.M., Yang, L. and Chen, Y. (2009) ‘Survey of composition and generation rate of household wastes in Beijing, China’, Waste Management 29: 2618–24 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2009.05.014>.
Republic of Rwanda: Ministry of Infrastructure (2010) National Policy & Strategy for Water Supply and Sanitation Services, Republic of Rwanda: Ministry of Infrastructure.
Riber, C., Petersen, C. and Christensen, T.H. (2009) ‘Chemical composition of material fractions in Danish household waste’, Waste Management 29: 1251–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2008.09.013>.
Salhofer, S., Obersteiner, G., Schneider, F. and Lebersorger, S. (2008) ‘Potentials for the prevention of municipal solid waste’, Waste Management 28: 245–59 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2007.02.026>.
Taboada-González, P., Armijo-De-Vega, C., Aguilar-Virgen, Q. and Ojeda-Benítez, S. (2010) ‘Household solid waste characteristics and management in rural communities’, The Open Waste Management Journal 3: 167–73.
Thanh, N.P., Matsui, Y. and Fujiwara, T. (2010) ‘Household solid waste generation and characteristics in a Mekong Delta city, Vietnam’, Journal of Environmental Management 91: 2307–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.06.016>.
The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in South Africa (CSIR) (2000) Guidelines for Human Settlement Planning and Design (The Red Book), Chapter 11, South Africa: CSIR.
Traore, E., Cousens, S., Curtis, V., Mertens, T., Tall, F., Traore, A., Kanki, B., Diallo, I., Rochereau, A., Chiron, J.P. (1994) ‘Child defecation behaviour, stool disposal practices, and childhood diarrhoea in Burkina Faso: results from a case-control study’, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 48: 270–5.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (2009) Municipal Solid Waste Generation, Recycling, and Disposal in the States: Facts and Figures for 2008, Washington, DC: US EPA.
US EPA (2011) Municipal Solid Waste in the United States: 2011 Facts and Figures, Washington, DC: EPA.
Vernacchio, L., Vezina, R.M., Mitchell, A.A., Lesko, S.M., Plaut, A.G. and Acheson, D.W. (2006) ‘Diarrhea in American infants and young children in the community setting: incidence, clinical presentation and microbiology’, Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 25: 2–7.
Warren County (1999) Warren County: Municipal Solid Waste Ordinance [pdf], North Carolina: Warren County <www.warrencountync.com/_fileUploads/forms/244_SOLID_WASTE_ORDINANCE.pdf> [accessed 15 May 2013].
Waste Management Department (n.d.) ‘City of Accra: waste management’ [online] Accra Metropolitan Assembly <http://ama.gov.gh/ama/page/5122/waste-management> [accessed 15 May 2013].
Watford Borough Council (n.d.) ‘Rubbish and waste FAQS’ [online] <www.watford.gov.uk/ccm/content/ehl/environmental-services/rubbish-and-waste-faqs.en?page=3#internalSection2> [accessed 17 May 2013].
WHO/UNICEF (2012) Report of a WHO/UNICEF JMP Technical Consultation on the Measurability of Global WASH Indicators for Post-2015 Monitoring, Geneva: WHO and New York: UNICEF.
WHO/UNICEF (2014) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2014 Update, Geneva: WHO and New York: UNICEF.
Yeager, B.A., Huttly, S.R., Bartolini, R., Rojas, M. and Lanata, C.F. (1999) ‘Defecation practices of young children in a Peruvian shanty town’, Social Science and Medicine 49: 531–41.
Disposable diaper waste accumulation at the human-livestock-wildlife interface: A one health approach
Kordecki, Hilary
Antrobus-Wuth, Romy
Uys, Marie-Tinka
van Wyk, Ilana
Root, Elisabeth D.
Berrian, Amanda M.
Environmental Challenges, Vol. 8 (2022), Iss. P.100589
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2022.100589 [Citations: 10]On the potential of Google Street View for environmental waste quantification in urban Africa: An assessment of bias in spatial coverage
Umar, Farouk
Amoah, Josephine
Asamoah, Moses
Dzodzomenyo, Mawuli
Igwenagu, Chidinma
Okotto, Lorna-Grace
Okotto-Okotto, Joseph
Shaw, Pete
Wright, Jim
Bloor, Michelle
Sustainable Environment, Vol. 9 (2023), Iss. 1
https://doi.org/10.1080/27658511.2023.2251799 [Citations: 0]An assessment of the replicability of a standard and modified sanitary risk protocol for groundwater sources in Greater Accra
Yentumi, W.
Dzodzomenyo, M.
Sashie-Doe, K.
Wright, J.
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, Vol. 191 (2019), Iss. 2
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-018-7174-5 [Citations: 5]Recent technologies for treatment and recycling of used disposable baby diapers
Khoo, Shing Ching
Phang, Xue Yee
Ng, Chia Min
Lim, Kar Loke
Lam, Su Shiung
Ma, Nyuk Ling
Process Safety and Environmental Protection, Vol. 123 (2019), Iss. P.116
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2018.12.016 [Citations: 85]Encyclopedia of Sustainable Technologies
Disposal of Urban Wastes
Tang, Yu-Ting
Huang, Chih
2024
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90386-8.00005-X [Citations: 0]Open defaecation by proxy: Tackling the increase of disposable diapers in waste piles in informal settlements
White, Hannah L.
Mwapasa, Taonga
Mphasa, Madalitso
Kalonde, Patrick Ken
Feasey, Nicholas
Oliver, David M.
Ormsby, Michael J.
Morse, Tracy
Chidziwisano, Kondwani
Quilliam, Richard S.
International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, Vol. 250 (2023), Iss. P.114171
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2023.114171 [Citations: 13]Delayed elimination communication is a crucial factor in disposable diaper dependence in Chinese preschool-aged children
Yu, Jia-ting
Mao, Qiu-fang
Ji, Feng-ping
Zhao, Ying
Hu, Hui-jie
Zhang, Yan-ping
Yang, Jing
Wang, Qing-wei
Lu, Wei
Wen, Jian Guo
Frontiers in Pediatrics, Vol. 10 (2023), Iss.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2022.1053118 [Citations: 0]Reclaiming resources from disposable diapers: Closing the loop with hydrothermal carbonization and water reuse
Wresta, Arini
Nilawati, Dewi
Eriska Putra, Herlian
Indriati, Lies
Sintawardani, Neni
Fitria, Novi
Hamidah, Umi
Purwanta, Wahyu
Permana, Dani
Ameir Rahman Setiawan, Arief
Amaranthi Putri, Ganiz
Energy Conversion and Management, Vol. 315 (2024), Iss. P.118813
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2024.118813 [Citations: 0]Knowledge and management practices for disposable baby diapers among child caregivers in informal urban settlements in Uganda
Ssembuusi, Allan
Wafula, Solomon Tsebeni
Musoke, David
Kasasa, Simon
Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, Vol. 14 (2024), Iss. 8 P.670
https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2024.019 [Citations: 0]End-of-life management of single-use baby diapers: Analysis of technical, health and environment aspects
Płotka-Wasylka, Justyna
Makoś-Chełstowska, Patrycja
Kurowska-Susdorf, Aleksandra
Treviño, María José Santoyo
Guzmán, Sergio Zarazúa
Mostafa, Heba
Cordella, Mauro
Science of The Total Environment, Vol. 836 (2022), Iss. P.155339
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155339 [Citations: 25]- A call to action: organizational, professional, and personal change for gender transformative WASH programming
- Providing municipal faecal sludge management services: lessons from Bangladesh
- Menstrual hygiene management: education and empowerment for girls?
- Webwatch
- Transgender-inclusive sanitation: insights from South Asia
Browse our other journals
