Are burial or disposal with garbage safe forms of child faeces disposal? An expert consultation
The importance of safe handling and disposal of child faeces given its potential role in disease transmission are increasingly recognized. Household surveys demonstrate that the burying of child faeces (‘dig-and-bury’) is common in several countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and South-east Asia. Disposal with garbage is widely practised in middle- and high-income countries and is becoming increasingly common in urban areas of low-income countries. The safety of these two approaches is difficult to assess given the limited evidence available and we therefore sought the opinion of experts in the field of sanitation to support advocacy around the topic. We report the findings of an anonymous expert (Delphi) consultation on the safety of these two child faeces disposal methods. There was almost unanimous agreement these should be considered neither safe nor improved. A range of arguments was provided to support this position, including proximity of solid waste and burial sites to the home and children’s play areas and that neither practice would be acceptable for adults. The consultation also highlighted gaps in the current evidence base that should be addressed to gain a fuller insight into the risks involved in these two forms of sanitation with a view to providing both programmatic and normative guidance. In particular further work is needed to assess the potential for exposure to faecal matter in solid waste in low- and middle-income countries and to elucidate the predominant practices of child faeces burial including proximity to the home or infant play areas as well as depth of burial.Baltazar, J.C. and Solon, F.S. (1989) ‘Disposal of faeces of children under two years old and diarrhoea incidence: a case-control study’, International Journal of Epidemiology 18(4 Suppl 2): S16–19 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/18.Supplement_2.S16>.
Curtis, V., Kanki, B., Mertens, T., Traoré, E., Diallo, I., Tall, F. and Cousens, S. (1995) ‘Potties, pits and pipes: explaining hygiene behaviour in Burkina Faso’, Social Science & Medicine 41(3): 383–93 <http://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(94)00341-P>.
Fischer Walker, C.L., Perin, J., Aryee, M.J., Boschi-Pinto, C. and Black, R.E. (2012) ‘Diarrhea incidence in low- and middle-income countries in 1990 and 2010: a systematic review’, BMC Public Health 12: 220 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-220>.
Freeman, M.C., Stocks, M.E., Cumming, O., Jeandron, A., Higgins, J.P., Wolf, J., Pruss-Ustun, A., Bonjour, S., Hunter, P.R., Fewtrell, L. and Curtis, V. (2014) ‘Hygiene and health: systematic review of handwashing practices worldwide and update of health effects’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 19(8): 906–16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12339>.
Gil, A., Lanata, C., Kleinau, E. and Penny, M. (2004) Children’s Feces Disposal Practices in Developing Countries and Interventions to Prevent Diarrheal Diseases: A Literature Review, Environmental Health Project of USAID Strategic Report 11: 1–67.
Isely, R.B. (1984) ‘Focusing sanitation programmes on mothers and older siblings of small children’, Tropical Doctor 14: 136–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/004947558401400313>.
Korpe, P.S. and Petri, W.A. (2012) ‘Environmental enteropathy: critical implications of a poorly understood condition’, Trends in Molecular Medicine 18(6): 328–36 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2012.04.007>.
Lanata, C.F., Huttly, S.R.A. and Yeager, B.A.C. (1998) ‘Diarrhea: whose feces matter? Reflections from studies in a Peruvian shanty town’, Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 17(1): 7–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006454-199801000-00003>.
Linstone, H.A. and Turoff, M. (1975) The Delphi method: Techniques and applications, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Majorin, F., Freeman, M.C., Barnard, S., Routray, P., Boisson, S. and Clasen, T. (2014) ‘Child feces disposal practices in rural Orissa: a cross sectional study’, PLOS One 9(2): e89551 <http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089551>.
Ngure, F.M., Humphrey, J.H., Mbuya, M.N., Majo, F., Mutasa, K., Govha, M., Mazarura, E., Chasekwa, B., Prendergast, A.J., Curtis, V., Boor, K.J. and Stoltzfus, R.J. (2013) ‘Formative research on hygiene behaviors and geophagy among infants and young children and implications of exposure to fecal bacteria’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Health 89(4): 709–16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.12-0568>.
Pruss-Ustun, A., Bartram, J., Clasen, T., Colford, J.M., Cumming, O., Curtis, V., Bonjour, S., Dangour, A.D., De France, J., Fewtrell, L., Freeman, M.C., Gordon, B., Hunter, P.R., Johnston, R.B., Mathers, C., Mausezahl, D., Medlicott, K., Neira, M., Stocks, M., Wolf, J. and Cairncross, S. (2014) ‘Burden of disease from inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene in low- and middle-income settings: a retrospective analysis of data from 145 countries’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 19(8): 894–905 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12329>.
Roy, E., Hasan, K.Z., Haque, R., Fazlul Haque, A.K.M., Siddique, A.K. and Bradley Sack, R. (2011) ‘Patterns and risk factors for helminthiasis in rural children aged under 2 in Bangladesh’, SA Journal of Child Health 5: 78–84.
Temple, K.L., Camper, A.K. and McFeters, G.A. (1980) ‘Survival of two enterobacteria in feces buried in soil under field conditions’, Applied and Environmental Microbiology 40(4): 794–7.
Traoré, E., Cousens, S., Curtis, V., Mertens, T., Tall, F., Traoré, A., Kanki, B., Diallo, I., Rochereau, A. and Chiron, J.P. (1994) ‘Child defecation behavior, stool disposal practices, and childhood diarrhoea in Burkina Faso: results from a case-control study’, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 48(3): 270–5.
Tumwine, J.K., Thompson, J., Katua-Katua, M., Mujwajuzi, M., Johnstone, N. and Porras, I. (2002) ‘Diarrhoea and effects of different water sources, sanitation and hygiene behaviour in East Africa’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 7(9): 750–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3156.2002.00927.x>.
United Nations (2014) The Road to Dignity by 2030: Ending Poverty, Transforming All Lives and Protecting the Planet [pdf] Synthesis Report of the Secretary-General on the Post-2015 Agenda <www.un.org/disabilities/documents/reports/SG_Synthesis_Report_Road_to_Dignity_by_2030.pdf> [accessed 1 March 2015].
Water and Sanitation Program/UNICEF (2015) ‘Ensuring safe sanitation for children’, child faeces disposal profiles for 26 countries [online] <www.wsp.org/content/ensuring-safe-sanitation-children-0> [accessed 1 March 2015].
WHO/UNICEF (2006) Core Questions on Drinking-water and Sanitation for Household Surveys [pdf] <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1268174016-JMP_Core_Questions.pdf> [accessed 1 March 2015].
WHO/UNICEF (2013) Post-2015 WASH Indicators and Targets [pdf] <www.unicef.org/wash/files/4_WSSCC_JMP_Fact_Sheets_4_UK_LoRes.pdf> [accessed 1 March 2015].
WHO/UNICEF (2014) Progress on Drinking-water and Sanitation: 2014 Update [pdf] <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP_report_2014_webEng.pdf> [accessed 1 March 2015].
Baltazar, J.C. and Solon, F.S. (1989) ‘Disposal of faeces of children under two years old and diarrhoea incidence: a case-control study’, International Journal of Epidemiology 18(4 Suppl 2): S16–19 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/18.Supplement_2.S16>.
Curtis, V., Kanki, B., Mertens, T., Traoré, E., Diallo, I., Tall, F. and Cousens, S. (1995) ‘Potties, pits and pipes: explaining hygiene behaviour in Burkina Faso’, Social Science & Medicine 41(3): 383–93 <http://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(94)00341-P>.
Fischer Walker, C.L., Perin, J., Aryee, M.J., Boschi-Pinto, C. and Black, R.E. (2012) ‘Diarrhea incidence in low- and middle-income countries in 1990 and 2010: a systematic review’, BMC Public Health 12: 220 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-220>.
Freeman, M.C., Stocks, M.E., Cumming, O., Jeandron, A., Higgins, J.P., Wolf, J., Pruss-Ustun, A., Bonjour, S., Hunter, P.R., Fewtrell, L. and Curtis, V. (2014) ‘Hygiene and health: systematic review of handwashing practices worldwide and update of health effects’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 19(8): 906–16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12339>.
Gil, A., Lanata, C., Kleinau, E. and Penny, M. (2004) Children’s Feces Disposal Practices in Developing Countries and Interventions to Prevent Diarrheal Diseases: A Literature Review, Environmental Health Project of USAID Strategic Report 11: 1–67.
Isely, R.B. (1984) ‘Focusing sanitation programmes on mothers and older siblings of small children’, Tropical Doctor 14: 136–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/004947558401400313>.
Korpe, P.S. and Petri, W.A. (2012) ‘Environmental enteropathy: critical implications of a poorly understood condition’, Trends in Molecular Medicine 18(6): 328–36 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2012.04.007>.
Lanata, C.F., Huttly, S.R.A. and Yeager, B.A.C. (1998) ‘Diarrhea: whose feces matter? Reflections from studies in a Peruvian shanty town’, Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 17(1): 7–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006454-199801000-00003>.
Linstone, H.A. and Turoff, M. (1975) The Delphi method: Techniques and applications, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Majorin, F., Freeman, M.C., Barnard, S., Routray, P., Boisson, S. and Clasen, T. (2014) ‘Child feces disposal practices in rural Orissa: a cross sectional study’, PLOS One 9(2): e89551 <http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089551>.
Ngure, F.M., Humphrey, J.H., Mbuya, M.N., Majo, F., Mutasa, K., Govha, M., Mazarura, E., Chasekwa, B., Prendergast, A.J., Curtis, V., Boor, K.J. and Stoltzfus, R.J. (2013) ‘Formative research on hygiene behaviors and geophagy among infants and young children and implications of exposure to fecal bacteria’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Health 89(4): 709–16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.12-0568>.
Pruss-Ustun, A., Bartram, J., Clasen, T., Colford, J.M., Cumming, O., Curtis, V., Bonjour, S., Dangour, A.D., De France, J., Fewtrell, L., Freeman, M.C., Gordon, B., Hunter, P.R., Johnston, R.B., Mathers, C., Mausezahl, D., Medlicott, K., Neira, M., Stocks, M., Wolf, J. and Cairncross, S. (2014) ‘Burden of disease from inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene in low- and middle-income settings: a retrospective analysis of data from 145 countries’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 19(8): 894–905 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12329>.
Roy, E., Hasan, K.Z., Haque, R., Fazlul Haque, A.K.M., Siddique, A.K. and Bradley Sack, R. (2011) ‘Patterns and risk factors for helminthiasis in rural children aged under 2 in Bangladesh’, SA Journal of Child Health 5: 78–84.
Temple, K.L., Camper, A.K. and McFeters, G.A. (1980) ‘Survival of two enterobacteria in feces buried in soil under field conditions’, Applied and Environmental Microbiology 40(4): 794–7.
Traoré, E., Cousens, S., Curtis, V., Mertens, T., Tall, F., Traoré, A., Kanki, B., Diallo, I., Rochereau, A. and Chiron, J.P. (1994) ‘Child defecation behavior, stool disposal practices, and childhood diarrhoea in Burkina Faso: results from a case-control study’, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 48(3): 270–5.
Tumwine, J.K., Thompson, J., Katua-Katua, M., Mujwajuzi, M., Johnstone, N. and Porras, I. (2002) ‘Diarrhoea and effects of different water sources, sanitation and hygiene behaviour in East Africa’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 7(9): 750–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3156.2002.00927.x>.
United Nations (2014) The Road to Dignity by 2030: Ending Poverty, Transforming All Lives and Protecting the Planet [pdf] Synthesis Report of the Secretary-General on the Post-2015 Agenda <www.un.org/disabilities/documents/reports/SG_Synthesis_Report_Road_to_Dignity_by_2030.pdf> [accessed 1 March 2015].
Water and Sanitation Program/UNICEF (2015) ‘Ensuring safe sanitation for children’, child faeces disposal profiles for 26 countries [online] <www.wsp.org/content/ensuring-safe-sanitation-children-0> [accessed 1 March 2015].
WHO/UNICEF (2006) Core Questions on Drinking-water and Sanitation for Household Surveys [pdf] <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1268174016-JMP_Core_Questions.pdf> [accessed 1 March 2015].
WHO/UNICEF (2013) Post-2015 WASH Indicators and Targets [pdf] <www.unicef.org/wash/files/4_WSSCC_JMP_Fact_Sheets_4_UK_LoRes.pdf> [accessed 1 March 2015].
WHO/UNICEF (2014) Progress on Drinking-water and Sanitation: 2014 Update [pdf] <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP_report_2014_webEng.pdf> [accessed 1 March 2015].
Baltazar, J.C. and Solon, F.S. (1989) ‘Disposal of faeces of children under two years old and diarrhoea incidence: a case-control study’, International Journal of Epidemiology 18(4 Suppl 2): S16–19 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/18.Supplement_2.S16>.
Curtis, V., Kanki, B., Mertens, T., Traoré, E., Diallo, I., Tall, F. and Cousens, S. (1995) ‘Potties, pits and pipes: explaining hygiene behaviour in Burkina Faso’, Social Science & Medicine 41(3): 383–93 <http://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(94)00341-P>.
Fischer Walker, C.L., Perin, J., Aryee, M.J., Boschi-Pinto, C. and Black, R.E. (2012) ‘Diarrhea incidence in low- and middle-income countries in 1990 and 2010: a systematic review’, BMC Public Health 12: 220 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-220>.
Freeman, M.C., Stocks, M.E., Cumming, O., Jeandron, A., Higgins, J.P., Wolf, J., Pruss-Ustun, A., Bonjour, S., Hunter, P.R., Fewtrell, L. and Curtis, V. (2014) ‘Hygiene and health: systematic review of handwashing practices worldwide and update of health effects’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 19(8): 906–16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12339>.
Gil, A., Lanata, C., Kleinau, E. and Penny, M. (2004) Children’s Feces Disposal Practices in Developing Countries and Interventions to Prevent Diarrheal Diseases: A Literature Review, Environmental Health Project of USAID Strategic Report 11: 1–67.
Isely, R.B. (1984) ‘Focusing sanitation programmes on mothers and older siblings of small children’, Tropical Doctor 14: 136–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/004947558401400313>.
Korpe, P.S. and Petri, W.A. (2012) ‘Environmental enteropathy: critical implications of a poorly understood condition’, Trends in Molecular Medicine 18(6): 328–36 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2012.04.007>.
Lanata, C.F., Huttly, S.R.A. and Yeager, B.A.C. (1998) ‘Diarrhea: whose feces matter? Reflections from studies in a Peruvian shanty town’, Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 17(1): 7–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006454-199801000-00003>.
Linstone, H.A. and Turoff, M. (1975) The Delphi method: Techniques and applications, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Majorin, F., Freeman, M.C., Barnard, S., Routray, P., Boisson, S. and Clasen, T. (2014) ‘Child feces disposal practices in rural Orissa: a cross sectional study’, PLOS One 9(2): e89551 <http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089551>.
Ngure, F.M., Humphrey, J.H., Mbuya, M.N., Majo, F., Mutasa, K., Govha, M., Mazarura, E., Chasekwa, B., Prendergast, A.J., Curtis, V., Boor, K.J. and Stoltzfus, R.J. (2013) ‘Formative research on hygiene behaviors and geophagy among infants and young children and implications of exposure to fecal bacteria’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Health 89(4): 709–16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.12-0568>.
Pruss-Ustun, A., Bartram, J., Clasen, T., Colford, J.M., Cumming, O., Curtis, V., Bonjour, S., Dangour, A.D., De France, J., Fewtrell, L., Freeman, M.C., Gordon, B., Hunter, P.R., Johnston, R.B., Mathers, C., Mausezahl, D., Medlicott, K., Neira, M., Stocks, M., Wolf, J. and Cairncross, S. (2014) ‘Burden of disease from inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene in low- and middle-income settings: a retrospective analysis of data from 145 countries’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 19(8): 894–905 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12329>.
Roy, E., Hasan, K.Z., Haque, R., Fazlul Haque, A.K.M., Siddique, A.K. and Bradley Sack, R. (2011) ‘Patterns and risk factors for helminthiasis in rural children aged under 2 in Bangladesh’, SA Journal of Child Health 5: 78–84.
Temple, K.L., Camper, A.K. and McFeters, G.A. (1980) ‘Survival of two enterobacteria in feces buried in soil under field conditions’, Applied and Environmental Microbiology 40(4): 794–7.
Traoré, E., Cousens, S., Curtis, V., Mertens, T., Tall, F., Traoré, A., Kanki, B., Diallo, I., Rochereau, A. and Chiron, J.P. (1994) ‘Child defecation behavior, stool disposal practices, and childhood diarrhoea in Burkina Faso: results from a case-control study’, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 48(3): 270–5.
Tumwine, J.K., Thompson, J., Katua-Katua, M., Mujwajuzi, M., Johnstone, N. and Porras, I. (2002) ‘Diarrhoea and effects of different water sources, sanitation and hygiene behaviour in East Africa’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 7(9): 750–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3156.2002.00927.x>.
United Nations (2014) The Road to Dignity by 2030: Ending Poverty, Transforming All Lives and Protecting the Planet [pdf] Synthesis Report of the Secretary-General on the Post-2015 Agenda <www.un.org/disabilities/documents/reports/SG_Synthesis_Report_Road_to_Dignity_by_2030.pdf> [accessed 1 March 2015].
Water and Sanitation Program/UNICEF (2015) ‘Ensuring safe sanitation for children’, child faeces disposal profiles for 26 countries [online] <www.wsp.org/content/ensuring-safe-sanitation-children-0> [accessed 1 March 2015].
WHO/UNICEF (2006) Core Questions on Drinking-water and Sanitation for Household Surveys [pdf] <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1268174016-JMP_Core_Questions.pdf> [accessed 1 March 2015].
WHO/UNICEF (2013) Post-2015 WASH Indicators and Targets [pdf] <www.unicef.org/wash/files/4_WSSCC_JMP_Fact_Sheets_4_UK_LoRes.pdf> [accessed 1 March 2015].
WHO/UNICEF (2014) Progress on Drinking-water and Sanitation: 2014 Update [pdf] <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP_report_2014_webEng.pdf> [accessed 1 March 2015].
Baltazar, J.C. and Solon, F.S. (1989) ‘Disposal of faeces of children under two years old and diarrhoea incidence: a case-control study’, International Journal of Epidemiology 18(4 Suppl 2): S16–19 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/18.Supplement_2.S16>.
Curtis, V., Kanki, B., Mertens, T., Traoré, E., Diallo, I., Tall, F. and Cousens, S. (1995) ‘Potties, pits and pipes: explaining hygiene behaviour in Burkina Faso’, Social Science & Medicine 41(3): 383–93 <http://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(94)00341-P>.
Fischer Walker, C.L., Perin, J., Aryee, M.J., Boschi-Pinto, C. and Black, R.E. (2012) ‘Diarrhea incidence in low- and middle-income countries in 1990 and 2010: a systematic review’, BMC Public Health 12: 220 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-220>.
Freeman, M.C., Stocks, M.E., Cumming, O., Jeandron, A., Higgins, J.P., Wolf, J., Pruss-Ustun, A., Bonjour, S., Hunter, P.R., Fewtrell, L. and Curtis, V. (2014) ‘Hygiene and health: systematic review of handwashing practices worldwide and update of health effects’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 19(8): 906–16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12339>.
Gil, A., Lanata, C., Kleinau, E. and Penny, M. (2004) Children’s Feces Disposal Practices in Developing Countries and Interventions to Prevent Diarrheal Diseases: A Literature Review, Environmental Health Project of USAID Strategic Report 11: 1–67.
Isely, R.B. (1984) ‘Focusing sanitation programmes on mothers and older siblings of small children’, Tropical Doctor 14: 136–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/004947558401400313>.
Korpe, P.S. and Petri, W.A. (2012) ‘Environmental enteropathy: critical implications of a poorly understood condition’, Trends in Molecular Medicine 18(6): 328–36 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2012.04.007>.
Lanata, C.F., Huttly, S.R.A. and Yeager, B.A.C. (1998) ‘Diarrhea: whose feces matter? Reflections from studies in a Peruvian shanty town’, Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 17(1): 7–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006454-199801000-00003>.
Linstone, H.A. and Turoff, M. (1975) The Delphi method: Techniques and applications, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Majorin, F., Freeman, M.C., Barnard, S., Routray, P., Boisson, S. and Clasen, T. (2014) ‘Child feces disposal practices in rural Orissa: a cross sectional study’, PLOS One 9(2): e89551 <http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089551>.
Ngure, F.M., Humphrey, J.H., Mbuya, M.N., Majo, F., Mutasa, K., Govha, M., Mazarura, E., Chasekwa, B., Prendergast, A.J., Curtis, V., Boor, K.J. and Stoltzfus, R.J. (2013) ‘Formative research on hygiene behaviors and geophagy among infants and young children and implications of exposure to fecal bacteria’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Health 89(4): 709–16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.12-0568>.
Pruss-Ustun, A., Bartram, J., Clasen, T., Colford, J.M., Cumming, O., Curtis, V., Bonjour, S., Dangour, A.D., De France, J., Fewtrell, L., Freeman, M.C., Gordon, B., Hunter, P.R., Johnston, R.B., Mathers, C., Mausezahl, D., Medlicott, K., Neira, M., Stocks, M., Wolf, J. and Cairncross, S. (2014) ‘Burden of disease from inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene in low- and middle-income settings: a retrospective analysis of data from 145 countries’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 19(8): 894–905 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12329>.
Roy, E., Hasan, K.Z., Haque, R., Fazlul Haque, A.K.M., Siddique, A.K. and Bradley Sack, R. (2011) ‘Patterns and risk factors for helminthiasis in rural children aged under 2 in Bangladesh’, SA Journal of Child Health 5: 78–84.
Temple, K.L., Camper, A.K. and McFeters, G.A. (1980) ‘Survival of two enterobacteria in feces buried in soil under field conditions’, Applied and Environmental Microbiology 40(4): 794–7.
Traoré, E., Cousens, S., Curtis, V., Mertens, T., Tall, F., Traoré, A., Kanki, B., Diallo, I., Rochereau, A. and Chiron, J.P. (1994) ‘Child defecation behavior, stool disposal practices, and childhood diarrhoea in Burkina Faso: results from a case-control study’, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 48(3): 270–5.
Tumwine, J.K., Thompson, J., Katua-Katua, M., Mujwajuzi, M., Johnstone, N. and Porras, I. (2002) ‘Diarrhoea and effects of different water sources, sanitation and hygiene behaviour in East Africa’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 7(9): 750–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3156.2002.00927.x>.
United Nations (2014) The Road to Dignity by 2030: Ending Poverty, Transforming All Lives and Protecting the Planet [pdf] Synthesis Report of the Secretary-General on the Post-2015 Agenda <www.un.org/disabilities/documents/reports/SG_Synthesis_Report_Road_to_Dignity_by_2030.pdf> [accessed 1 March 2015].
Water and Sanitation Program/UNICEF (2015) ‘Ensuring safe sanitation for children’, child faeces disposal profiles for 26 countries [online] <www.wsp.org/content/ensuring-safe-sanitation-children-0> [accessed 1 March 2015].
WHO/UNICEF (2006) Core Questions on Drinking-water and Sanitation for Household Surveys [pdf] <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1268174016-JMP_Core_Questions.pdf> [accessed 1 March 2015].
WHO/UNICEF (2013) Post-2015 WASH Indicators and Targets [pdf] <www.unicef.org/wash/files/4_WSSCC_JMP_Fact_Sheets_4_UK_LoRes.pdf> [accessed 1 March 2015].
WHO/UNICEF (2014) Progress on Drinking-water and Sanitation: 2014 Update [pdf] <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP_report_2014_webEng.pdf> [accessed 1 March 2015].
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