By now, all UN Member States have recognized the human rights to water and sanitation by supporting one or more international documents, such as resolutions or declarations. The WASH sector increasingly welcomes the human rights to water and sanitation as a concept. Yet important questions and misunderstandings persist. One of them is an often limited understanding of the human rights principle of equality - and why it is preferable to other concepts such as equity. This paper explains the importance of the human rights principle of equality for achieving meaningful progress in the realization of the human rights to water and sanitation. It sets out what international human rights law demands and how this relates to national legal frameworks for water and sanitation services. Using a number of examples, it shows how equality has been used to address cases of discrimination and to tackle existing inequalities in water and sanitation service provision in a targeted manner.

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JMP (2014) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation 2014 Update, New York: UNICEF and Geneva: World Health Organization.

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (2012) Human Rights Indicators: A Guide to Measurement and Implementation, New York and Geneva: UNHCHR.

UN Human Rights Council (2013) Resolution 24/18: The human right to safe drinking water and sanitation. Geneva: UNHRC.

UN Special Rapporteur on the Human Right to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation (2012) Integrating Non-discrimination and Equality into the Post-2015 Development Agenda for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene [pdf] <www.worldwewant2015.org/file/272869/download/295616≯ [accessed 23 September 2014]. www.worldwewant2015.org/file/272869/download/295616

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CESCR (2002) General Comment No. 15: The Right to Water (arts. 11 and 12). Geneva: CESCR.

CESCR (2009) General Comment No. 20: Non-Discrimination in Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (art. 2, para. 2), Geneva: CESCR.

Constitutional Court (1998) City Council of Pretoria v. Walker [online], Constitutional Court of South Africa, Case CCT 8/97 (1998) <www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZACC/1998/1.pdf≯ [accessed 11 August 2014]. www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZACC/1998/1.pdf

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JMP (2014) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation 2014 Update, New York: UNICEF and Geneva: World Health Organization.

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (2012) Human Rights Indicators: A Guide to Measurement and Implementation, New York and Geneva: UNHCHR.

UN Human Rights Council (2013) Resolution 24/18: The human right to safe drinking water and sanitation. Geneva: UNHRC.

UN Special Rapporteur on the Human Right to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation (2012) Integrating Non-discrimination and Equality into the Post-2015 Development Agenda for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene [pdf] <www.worldwewant2015.org/file/272869/download/295616≯ [accessed 23 September 2014]. www.worldwewant2015.org/file/272869/download/295616

Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB) (2002) ‘Model water service regulations’ [online], Kenya: Water Services Regulatory Board <www.wasreb.go.ke/regulatory-tools/water-serviceregulations≯ [accessed 6 June 2014]. www.wasreb.go.ke/regulatory-tools/water-serviceregulations

WASREB (2013) Impact 2013: A Performance Review of Kenya's Water Services Sector 2011–2012 [online], Kenya: Water Services Regulatory Board <www.wasreb.go.ke/impact-reports≯ [accessed 6 June 2014]. www.wasreb.go.ke/impact-reports

WASREB (2014) Pro-Poor Regulation and Monitoring Enhancement Consultancy, Final Report. Nairobi: WASREB, WSUP, Development Impact Consulting and Egis Kenya [on file with author].

Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) (1990) General Comment No. 3: The Nature of States parties obligations (art. 2 (1), para. 2, 9). Geneva: CESCR.

CESCR (2002) General Comment No. 15: The Right to Water (arts. 11 and 12). Geneva: CESCR.

CESCR (2009) General Comment No. 20: Non-Discrimination in Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (art. 2, para. 2), Geneva: CESCR.

Constitutional Court (1998) City Council of Pretoria v. Walker [online], Constitutional Court of South Africa, Case CCT 8/97 (1998) <www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZACC/1998/1.pdf≯ [accessed 11 August 2014]. www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZACC/1998/1.pdf

District Court (2007) Kennedy v. City of Zanesville [online], District Court (Southern District of Ohio, Eastern Division), United States of America, 2:03-cv-1047 <www.relmanlaw.com/docs/zanesville-opposition.pdf≯ [accessed 6 June 2014]. www.relmanlaw.com/docs/zanesville-opposition.pdf

Govender, K. (2009) Commentary, The Developing Equality Jurisprudence in South Africa [pdf], 107 Michigan Law Review First Impressions 120 <www.michiganlawreview.org/assets/fi/107/govender.pdf≯ [accessed 6 June 2014]. www.michiganlawreview.org/assets/fi/107/govender.pdf

Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) End Working Group (2012) Working Group on Equity and Non-Discrimination Final Report [pdf], <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-END-WG-Final-Report-20120821.pdf≯ [accessed 11 August 2014]. www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-END-WG-Final-Report-20120821.pdf

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JMP (2014) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation 2014 Update, New York: UNICEF and Geneva: World Health Organization.

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (2012) Human Rights Indicators: A Guide to Measurement and Implementation, New York and Geneva: UNHCHR.

UN Human Rights Council (2013) Resolution 24/18: The human right to safe drinking water and sanitation. Geneva: UNHRC.

UN Special Rapporteur on the Human Right to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation (2012) Integrating Non-discrimination and Equality into the Post-2015 Development Agenda for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene [pdf] <www.worldwewant2015.org/file/272869/download/295616≯ [accessed 23 September 2014]. www.worldwewant2015.org/file/272869/download/295616

Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB) (2002) ‘Model water service regulations’ [online], Kenya: Water Services Regulatory Board <www.wasreb.go.ke/regulatory-tools/water-serviceregulations≯ [accessed 6 June 2014]. www.wasreb.go.ke/regulatory-tools/water-serviceregulations

WASREB (2013) Impact 2013: A Performance Review of Kenya's Water Services Sector 2011–2012 [online], Kenya: Water Services Regulatory Board <www.wasreb.go.ke/impact-reports≯ [accessed 6 June 2014]. www.wasreb.go.ke/impact-reports

WASREB (2014) Pro-Poor Regulation and Monitoring Enhancement Consultancy, Final Report. Nairobi: WASREB, WSUP, Development Impact Consulting and Egis Kenya [on file with author].

Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) (1990) General Comment No. 3: The Nature of States parties obligations (art. 2 (1), para. 2, 9). Geneva: CESCR.

CESCR (2002) General Comment No. 15: The Right to Water (arts. 11 and 12). Geneva: CESCR.

CESCR (2009) General Comment No. 20: Non-Discrimination in Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (art. 2, para. 2), Geneva: CESCR.

Constitutional Court (1998) City Council of Pretoria v. Walker [online], Constitutional Court of South Africa, Case CCT 8/97 (1998) <www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZACC/1998/1.pdf≯ [accessed 11 August 2014]. www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZACC/1998/1.pdf

District Court (2007) Kennedy v. City of Zanesville [online], District Court (Southern District of Ohio, Eastern Division), United States of America, 2:03-cv-1047 <www.relmanlaw.com/docs/zanesville-opposition.pdf≯ [accessed 6 June 2014]. www.relmanlaw.com/docs/zanesville-opposition.pdf

Govender, K. (2009) Commentary, The Developing Equality Jurisprudence in South Africa [pdf], 107 Michigan Law Review First Impressions 120 <www.michiganlawreview.org/assets/fi/107/govender.pdf≯ [accessed 6 June 2014]. www.michiganlawreview.org/assets/fi/107/govender.pdf

Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) End Working Group (2012) Working Group on Equity and Non-Discrimination Final Report [pdf], <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-END-WG-Final-Report-20120821.pdf≯ [accessed 11 August 2014]. www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-END-WG-Final-Report-20120821.pdf

JMP (2013) Ending Inequalities: A Cornerstone of the Post-2015 Development Agenda [pdf], WHO, UNICEF, UN Special Rapporteur on the Human Right to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/Ending-Inequalities-EN-LowRes.pdf≯ [accessed 6 June 2014]. www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/Ending-Inequalities-EN-LowRes.pdf

JMP (2014) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation 2014 Update, New York: UNICEF and Geneva: World Health Organization.

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (2012) Human Rights Indicators: A Guide to Measurement and Implementation, New York and Geneva: UNHCHR.

UN Human Rights Council (2013) Resolution 24/18: The human right to safe drinking water and sanitation. Geneva: UNHRC.

UN Special Rapporteur on the Human Right to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation (2012) Integrating Non-discrimination and Equality into the Post-2015 Development Agenda for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene [pdf] <www.worldwewant2015.org/file/272869/download/295616≯ [accessed 23 September 2014]. www.worldwewant2015.org/file/272869/download/295616

Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB) (2002) ‘Model water service regulations’ [online], Kenya: Water Services Regulatory Board <www.wasreb.go.ke/regulatory-tools/water-serviceregulations≯ [accessed 6 June 2014]. www.wasreb.go.ke/regulatory-tools/water-serviceregulations

WASREB (2013) Impact 2013: A Performance Review of Kenya's Water Services Sector 2011–2012 [online], Kenya: Water Services Regulatory Board <www.wasreb.go.ke/impact-reports≯ [accessed 6 June 2014]. www.wasreb.go.ke/impact-reports

WASREB (2014) Pro-Poor Regulation and Monitoring Enhancement Consultancy, Final Report. Nairobi: WASREB, WSUP, Development Impact Consulting and Egis Kenya [on file with author].

Monitoring inequality in water access: Challenges for the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

Cetrulo, Tiago B.

Marques, Rui C.

Malheiros, Tadeu F.

Cetrulo, Natália M.

Science of The Total Environment, Vol. 727 (2020), Iss. P.138746

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138746 [Citations: 22]