Almost half of Indonesia's 238 million people live in urban areas, and most urban dwellers use on-site sanitation systems. Government policy recognizes the need for effective septage management systems but most existing septage treatment facilities are operating sub-optimally and less than 4 per cent of the faecal sludge generated is currently treated. This paper outlines the findings of field investigations of septage management in four cities undertaken by the World Bank's Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) as part of technical assistance to the Indonesian government. It summarizes the current faecal sludge management arrangements in the four cities, focusing particularly on the consequences of low demand for the financial viability of business models. Models based on ‘on-demand’ and scheduled tank desludging are explored in relation to their institutional and financial resource needs. The paper explores options for strengthening management systems and proposes an incremental approach to service improvement.

AECOM International Development Inc and SANDEC (2010) A Rapid Assessment of Septage Management in Asia, report for USAID, Los Angeles: AECOM; Dübendorf, Switzerland: SANDEC.

Bakare, B.F., Foxon, K.M., Brouckaert, C.J. and Buckley, C.A. (2012) ‘Variation in VIP latrine sludge content’, WaterSA 38, July 2012.

Cahyat, A. (2011) Guidebook to Local Governments in Indonesia [online] 〈http://forestclimatecenter.org/files/2011-09-21%20Guidebook%20to%20Local%20Governments%20in%20Indonesia%20(DRAFT).pdf〉 [accessed 23 April 2013]. http://forestclimatecenter.org/files/2011-09-21%20Guidebook%20to%20Local%20Governments%20in%20 Indonesia%20(DRAFT).pdf

Crites, R. and Tchobanoglous, G. (1998) Small and Decentralized Wastewater Management Systems, Boston, MA: WCB/McGraw Hill.

ERE Consulting Group (2012) Landscape Analysis and Business Model Assessment in Faecal Sludge Management: Extraction and Transportation Model in Malaysia, study funded by Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Selangor, Malyasia: ERE Consulting Group.

Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) (2012) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2012 Update, New York, NY: UNICEF and World Health Organization 〈http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2012/9789280646320_eng_full_text.pdf〉 [accessed 3 June 2013]. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2012/9789280646320_eng_full_text.pdf

Robbins, D.M. (2007) Septage Management Guide for Local Governments, A Step-by-Step Practical Guide to Developing Effective Septage Management Programs for Cities and Municipalities [pdf] 〈www.rti.org/pubs/septage_management_guide_1.pdf〉 [accessed April 2013]. www.rti.org/pubs/septage_management_guide_1.pdf

USAID/Philippine Sanitation Alliance (2011) Dumaguete Inaugurates Septage Treatment Facility [online] 〈http://psa.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=132:dumagueteseptage-treatment&catid=34&Itemid=80〉 [accessed April 2013]. http://psa.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=132:dumagueteseptage-treatment&catid=34&Itemid=80

AECOM International Development Inc and SANDEC (2010) A Rapid Assessment of Septage Management in Asia, report for USAID, Los Angeles: AECOM; Dübendorf, Switzerland: SANDEC.

Bakare, B.F., Foxon, K.M., Brouckaert, C.J. and Buckley, C.A. (2012) ‘Variation in VIP latrine sludge content’, WaterSA 38, July 2012.

Cahyat, A. (2011) Guidebook to Local Governments in Indonesia [online] 〈http://forestclimatecenter.org/files/2011-09-21%20Guidebook%20to%20Local%20Governments%20in%20Indonesia%20(DRAFT).pdf〉 [accessed 23 April 2013]. http://forestclimatecenter.org/files/2011-09-21%20Guidebook%20to%20Local%20Governments%20in%20 Indonesia%20(DRAFT).pdf

Crites, R. and Tchobanoglous, G. (1998) Small and Decentralized Wastewater Management Systems, Boston, MA: WCB/McGraw Hill.

ERE Consulting Group (2012) Landscape Analysis and Business Model Assessment in Faecal Sludge Management: Extraction and Transportation Model in Malaysia, study funded by Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Selangor, Malyasia: ERE Consulting Group.

Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) (2012) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2012 Update, New York, NY: UNICEF and World Health Organization 〈http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2012/9789280646320_eng_full_text.pdf〉 [accessed 3 June 2013]. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2012/9789280646320_eng_full_text.pdf

Robbins, D.M. (2007) Septage Management Guide for Local Governments, A Step-by-Step Practical Guide to Developing Effective Septage Management Programs for Cities and Municipalities [pdf] 〈www.rti.org/pubs/septage_management_guide_1.pdf〉 [accessed April 2013]. www.rti.org/pubs/septage_management_guide_1.pdf

USAID/Philippine Sanitation Alliance (2011) Dumaguete Inaugurates Septage Treatment Facility [online] 〈http://psa.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=132:dumagueteseptage-treatment&catid=34&Itemid=80〉 [accessed April 2013]. http://psa.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=132:dumagueteseptage-treatment&catid=34&Itemid=80

AECOM International Development Inc and SANDEC (2010) A Rapid Assessment of Septage Management in Asia, report for USAID, Los Angeles: AECOM; Dübendorf, Switzerland: SANDEC.

Bakare, B.F., Foxon, K.M., Brouckaert, C.J. and Buckley, C.A. (2012) ‘Variation in VIP latrine sludge content’, WaterSA 38, July 2012.

Cahyat, A. (2011) Guidebook to Local Governments in Indonesia [online] 〈http://forestclimatecenter.org/files/2011-09-21%20Guidebook%20to%20Local%20Governments%20in%20Indonesia%20(DRAFT).pdf〉 [accessed 23 April 2013]. http://forestclimatecenter.org/files/2011-09-21%20Guidebook%20to%20Local%20Governments%20in%20 Indonesia%20(DRAFT).pdf

Crites, R. and Tchobanoglous, G. (1998) Small and Decentralized Wastewater Management Systems, Boston, MA: WCB/McGraw Hill.

ERE Consulting Group (2012) Landscape Analysis and Business Model Assessment in Faecal Sludge Management: Extraction and Transportation Model in Malaysia, study funded by Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Selangor, Malyasia: ERE Consulting Group.

Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) (2012) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2012 Update, New York, NY: UNICEF and World Health Organization 〈http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2012/9789280646320_eng_full_text.pdf〉 [accessed 3 June 2013]. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2012/9789280646320_eng_full_text.pdf

Robbins, D.M. (2007) Septage Management Guide for Local Governments, A Step-by-Step Practical Guide to Developing Effective Septage Management Programs for Cities and Municipalities [pdf] 〈www.rti.org/pubs/septage_management_guide_1.pdf〉 [accessed April 2013]. www.rti.org/pubs/septage_management_guide_1.pdf

USAID/Philippine Sanitation Alliance (2011) Dumaguete Inaugurates Septage Treatment Facility [online] 〈http://psa.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=132:dumagueteseptage-treatment&catid=34&Itemid=80〉 [accessed April 2013]. http://psa.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=132:dumagueteseptage-treatment&catid=34&Itemid=80

AECOM International Development Inc and SANDEC (2010) A Rapid Assessment of Septage Management in Asia, report for USAID, Los Angeles: AECOM; Dübendorf, Switzerland: SANDEC.

Bakare, B.F., Foxon, K.M., Brouckaert, C.J. and Buckley, C.A. (2012) ‘Variation in VIP latrine sludge content’, WaterSA 38, July 2012.

Cahyat, A. (2011) Guidebook to Local Governments in Indonesia [online] 〈http://forestclimatecenter.org/files/2011-09-21%20Guidebook%20to%20Local%20Governments%20in%20Indonesia%20(DRAFT).pdf〉 [accessed 23 April 2013]. http://forestclimatecenter.org/files/2011-09-21%20Guidebook%20to%20Local%20Governments%20in%20 Indonesia%20(DRAFT).pdf

Crites, R. and Tchobanoglous, G. (1998) Small and Decentralized Wastewater Management Systems, Boston, MA: WCB/McGraw Hill.

ERE Consulting Group (2012) Landscape Analysis and Business Model Assessment in Faecal Sludge Management: Extraction and Transportation Model in Malaysia, study funded by Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Selangor, Malyasia: ERE Consulting Group.

Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) (2012) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2012 Update, New York, NY: UNICEF and World Health Organization 〈http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2012/9789280646320_eng_full_text.pdf〉 [accessed 3 June 2013]. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2012/9789280646320_eng_full_text.pdf

Robbins, D.M. (2007) Septage Management Guide for Local Governments, A Step-by-Step Practical Guide to Developing Effective Septage Management Programs for Cities and Municipalities [pdf] 〈www.rti.org/pubs/septage_management_guide_1.pdf〉 [accessed April 2013]. www.rti.org/pubs/septage_management_guide_1.pdf

USAID/Philippine Sanitation Alliance (2011) Dumaguete Inaugurates Septage Treatment Facility [online] 〈http://psa.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=132:dumagueteseptage-treatment&catid=34&Itemid=80〉 [accessed April 2013]. http://psa.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=132:dumagueteseptage-treatment&catid=34&Itemid=80