Water safety plan implementation in East Africa: motivations and barriers
Water safety plans (WSPs) are a comprehensive source-to-tap risk management approach that are recognized as the most effective way of ensuring drinking water safety. In East Africa there is only one utility implementing them, so this research aims to identify barriers for WSP implementation in this region, as well as potential motivating factors. This is achieved through 20 semi-structured interviews with utilities, regulators, and international agencies. The biggest motivating factor was the potential of WSPs to improve standards and reduce water quality incidents, with the potential for cost savings and non-revenue water reduction as further motivations. However, in many utilities senior managers are not motivated to start implementing WSPs and they can prevent other staff from doing so. Smaller or weaker utilities may struggle to implement a WSP as they are constantly engaged in their day-to-day problems and do not have the capacity to plan for the longer term.Bartram, J., Corrales, L., Davison, A., Deere, D., Drury, D., Gordon, B., Howard, G., Rinehold, A. and Stevens, M. (2009) Water Safety Plan Manual: Step by Step Risk Management for Drinking-Water Suppliers, Geneva: World Health Organisation.
Centres for Disease Control (CDC) (2011) A Conceptual Framework to Evaluate the Impacts of Water Safety Plans, Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services.
Davison, A., Howard, G., Stevens, M., Callan, P., Fewtrell, L., Deere, D. and Bartram, J. (2005) Water Safety Plans, Geneva: World Health Organisation.
Dyck, A., Exner, M. and Kramer, A. (2007) ‘Experimental based experiences with the introduction of a water safety plan for a multi-located university clinic and its efficacy according to WHO recommendations’, BMC Public Health 7: 34 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-7-34≯.
Godfrey, S., Chand, C.P., Anward, M. and Venkateswara Rao, C. (2005) ‘Water-safety plans for piped supplies with limited data: a case study from India’, Waterlines 23: 19-21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/0262-8104.2005.021≯.
Gunnarsdottir, M.J. and Gissurason, L.R. (2008) ‘HACCP and water safety plans in Icelandic water supply: preliminary evaluation of experience’, Journal of Water and Health 6: 377-82 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2008.055≯.
Gunnarsdottir, M.J., Gardarsson, S.M., Elliot, M., Sigmundsdottir, G. and Bartram, J. (2012a) ‘Benefits of water safety plans: microbiology, compliance and public health’, Environmental Science and Technology 46: 7783-89 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es300372h≯.
Gunnarsdottir, M.J., Gardarsson, S.M. and Bartram, J. (2012b) ‘Icelandic experience with water safety plans’, Water Science and Technology 65: 277-88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2012.801≯.
Jayaratne, A. (2008) ‘Application of a risk management system to improve drinking water safety’, Journal of Water and Health 6: 547-57 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2008.061≯.
Mahmud, S.G., Shamsuddin, S.A.J., Froze Ahmed, M., Davison, A., Deere, D. and Howard, G. (2007) ‘Development and implementation of water safety plans for small water supplies in Bangladesh: benefits and lessons learned’, Journal of Water and Health 5, 585-97 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2007.045≯.
Mälzer, H.J., Staben, N., Hein, A. and Merkel, W. (2010) ‘Identification, assessment and control of hazards in water supply: experience from Water Safety Plan implementation in Germany’, Water Science and Technology 61: 1307-15 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.026≯.
Rubin, H.J. and Rubin, I.S. (1995) Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Summerill, C. (2010) Improved Water Safety Planning: Insights into the Role of Organisational Culture, PhD Thesis, Bedford, UK: Cranfield University.
Summerill, C., Smith, J., Webster, J. and Pollard, S. (2010) ‘An international review of the challenges associated with securing ‘buy-in’ for water safety plans within providers of drinking water supplies’, Journal of Water and Health 8: 387-98 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2010.047≯.
Tibatemwa, S., Godfrey, S., Niwagaba, C. and Kizito, F. (2005) ‘Implementing watersafety plans in urban piped water supplies in Uganda’, Waterlines 23: 8-10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/0262-8104.2005.017≯.
Vieira, J.M.P. (2011) ‘A strategic approach for Water Safety Plans implementation in Portugal’, Journal of Water and Health 9: 107-16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2010.150≯.
Viljoen, C. (2010) ‘The World Health Organisation's water safety plan is much more than just an integrated drinking water quality management plan’, Water Science and Technology 61: 173-79 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.792≯.
World Health Organization (WHO) (2008) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: Incorporating 1st and 2nd Addenda, Vol.1, Recommendations, 3rd edn, Geneva: World Health Organisation.
WHO (2012) Water Safety Planning for Small Community Water Supplies: Step-by-step Risk Management Guidance for Drinking-water Supplies in Small Communities, Geneva: World Health Organization.
Yokoi, H., Embutsu, I., Yoda, M. and Waseda, K. (2006) ‘Study on the introduction of hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) concept of the water quality management in water supply system’, Water Science and Technology 53(4-5): 483-92. <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2006.153≯
Bartram, J., Corrales, L., Davison, A., Deere, D., Drury, D., Gordon, B., Howard, G., Rinehold, A. and Stevens, M. (2009) Water Safety Plan Manual: Step by Step Risk Management for Drinking-Water Suppliers, Geneva: World Health Organisation.
Centres for Disease Control (CDC) (2011) A Conceptual Framework to Evaluate the Impacts of Water Safety Plans, Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services.
Davison, A., Howard, G., Stevens, M., Callan, P., Fewtrell, L., Deere, D. and Bartram, J. (2005) Water Safety Plans, Geneva: World Health Organisation.
Dyck, A., Exner, M. and Kramer, A. (2007) ‘Experimental based experiences with the introduction of a water safety plan for a multi-located university clinic and its efficacy according to WHO recommendations’, BMC Public Health 7: 34 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-7-34≯.
Godfrey, S., Chand, C.P., Anward, M. and Venkateswara Rao, C. (2005) ‘Water-safety plans for piped supplies with limited data: a case study from India’, Waterlines 23: 19-21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/0262-8104.2005.021≯.
Gunnarsdottir, M.J. and Gissurason, L.R. (2008) ‘HACCP and water safety plans in Icelandic water supply: preliminary evaluation of experience’, Journal of Water and Health 6: 377-82 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2008.055≯.
Gunnarsdottir, M.J., Gardarsson, S.M., Elliot, M., Sigmundsdottir, G. and Bartram, J. (2012a) ‘Benefits of water safety plans: microbiology, compliance and public health’, Environmental Science and Technology 46: 7783-89 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es300372h≯.
Gunnarsdottir, M.J., Gardarsson, S.M. and Bartram, J. (2012b) ‘Icelandic experience with water safety plans’, Water Science and Technology 65: 277-88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2012.801≯.
Jayaratne, A. (2008) ‘Application of a risk management system to improve drinking water safety’, Journal of Water and Health 6: 547-57 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2008.061≯.
Mahmud, S.G., Shamsuddin, S.A.J., Froze Ahmed, M., Davison, A., Deere, D. and Howard, G. (2007) ‘Development and implementation of water safety plans for small water supplies in Bangladesh: benefits and lessons learned’, Journal of Water and Health 5, 585-97 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2007.045≯.
Mälzer, H.J., Staben, N., Hein, A. and Merkel, W. (2010) ‘Identification, assessment and control of hazards in water supply: experience from Water Safety Plan implementation in Germany’, Water Science and Technology 61: 1307-15 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.026≯.
Rubin, H.J. and Rubin, I.S. (1995) Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Summerill, C. (2010) Improved Water Safety Planning: Insights into the Role of Organisational Culture, PhD Thesis, Bedford, UK: Cranfield University.
Summerill, C., Smith, J., Webster, J. and Pollard, S. (2010) ‘An international review of the challenges associated with securing ‘buy-in’ for water safety plans within providers of drinking water supplies’, Journal of Water and Health 8: 387-98 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2010.047≯.
Tibatemwa, S., Godfrey, S., Niwagaba, C. and Kizito, F. (2005) ‘Implementing watersafety plans in urban piped water supplies in Uganda’, Waterlines 23: 8-10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/0262-8104.2005.017≯.
Vieira, J.M.P. (2011) ‘A strategic approach for Water Safety Plans implementation in Portugal’, Journal of Water and Health 9: 107-16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2010.150≯.
Viljoen, C. (2010) ‘The World Health Organisation's water safety plan is much more than just an integrated drinking water quality management plan’, Water Science and Technology 61: 173-79 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.792≯.
World Health Organization (WHO) (2008) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: Incorporating 1st and 2nd Addenda, Vol.1, Recommendations, 3rd edn, Geneva: World Health Organisation.
WHO (2012) Water Safety Planning for Small Community Water Supplies: Step-by-step Risk Management Guidance for Drinking-water Supplies in Small Communities, Geneva: World Health Organization.
Yokoi, H., Embutsu, I., Yoda, M. and Waseda, K. (2006) ‘Study on the introduction of hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) concept of the water quality management in water supply system’, Water Science and Technology 53(4-5): 483-92. <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2006.153≯
Bartram, J., Corrales, L., Davison, A., Deere, D., Drury, D., Gordon, B., Howard, G., Rinehold, A. and Stevens, M. (2009) Water Safety Plan Manual: Step by Step Risk Management for Drinking-Water Suppliers, Geneva: World Health Organisation.
Centres for Disease Control (CDC) (2011) A Conceptual Framework to Evaluate the Impacts of Water Safety Plans, Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services.
Davison, A., Howard, G., Stevens, M., Callan, P., Fewtrell, L., Deere, D. and Bartram, J. (2005) Water Safety Plans, Geneva: World Health Organisation.
Dyck, A., Exner, M. and Kramer, A. (2007) ‘Experimental based experiences with the introduction of a water safety plan for a multi-located university clinic and its efficacy according to WHO recommendations’, BMC Public Health 7: 34 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-7-34≯.
Godfrey, S., Chand, C.P., Anward, M. and Venkateswara Rao, C. (2005) ‘Water-safety plans for piped supplies with limited data: a case study from India’, Waterlines 23: 19-21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/0262-8104.2005.021≯.
Gunnarsdottir, M.J. and Gissurason, L.R. (2008) ‘HACCP and water safety plans in Icelandic water supply: preliminary evaluation of experience’, Journal of Water and Health 6: 377-82 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2008.055≯.
Gunnarsdottir, M.J., Gardarsson, S.M., Elliot, M., Sigmundsdottir, G. and Bartram, J. (2012a) ‘Benefits of water safety plans: microbiology, compliance and public health’, Environmental Science and Technology 46: 7783-89 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es300372h≯.
Gunnarsdottir, M.J., Gardarsson, S.M. and Bartram, J. (2012b) ‘Icelandic experience with water safety plans’, Water Science and Technology 65: 277-88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2012.801≯.
Jayaratne, A. (2008) ‘Application of a risk management system to improve drinking water safety’, Journal of Water and Health 6: 547-57 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2008.061≯.
Mahmud, S.G., Shamsuddin, S.A.J., Froze Ahmed, M., Davison, A., Deere, D. and Howard, G. (2007) ‘Development and implementation of water safety plans for small water supplies in Bangladesh: benefits and lessons learned’, Journal of Water and Health 5, 585-97 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2007.045≯.
Mälzer, H.J., Staben, N., Hein, A. and Merkel, W. (2010) ‘Identification, assessment and control of hazards in water supply: experience from Water Safety Plan implementation in Germany’, Water Science and Technology 61: 1307-15 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.026≯.
Rubin, H.J. and Rubin, I.S. (1995) Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Summerill, C. (2010) Improved Water Safety Planning: Insights into the Role of Organisational Culture, PhD Thesis, Bedford, UK: Cranfield University.
Summerill, C., Smith, J., Webster, J. and Pollard, S. (2010) ‘An international review of the challenges associated with securing ‘buy-in’ for water safety plans within providers of drinking water supplies’, Journal of Water and Health 8: 387-98 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2010.047≯.
Tibatemwa, S., Godfrey, S., Niwagaba, C. and Kizito, F. (2005) ‘Implementing watersafety plans in urban piped water supplies in Uganda’, Waterlines 23: 8-10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/0262-8104.2005.017≯.
Vieira, J.M.P. (2011) ‘A strategic approach for Water Safety Plans implementation in Portugal’, Journal of Water and Health 9: 107-16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2010.150≯.
Viljoen, C. (2010) ‘The World Health Organisation's water safety plan is much more than just an integrated drinking water quality management plan’, Water Science and Technology 61: 173-79 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.792≯.
World Health Organization (WHO) (2008) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: Incorporating 1st and 2nd Addenda, Vol.1, Recommendations, 3rd edn, Geneva: World Health Organisation.
WHO (2012) Water Safety Planning for Small Community Water Supplies: Step-by-step Risk Management Guidance for Drinking-water Supplies in Small Communities, Geneva: World Health Organization.
Yokoi, H., Embutsu, I., Yoda, M. and Waseda, K. (2006) ‘Study on the introduction of hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) concept of the water quality management in water supply system’, Water Science and Technology 53(4-5): 483-92. <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2006.153≯
Bartram, J., Corrales, L., Davison, A., Deere, D., Drury, D., Gordon, B., Howard, G., Rinehold, A. and Stevens, M. (2009) Water Safety Plan Manual: Step by Step Risk Management for Drinking-Water Suppliers, Geneva: World Health Organisation.
Centres for Disease Control (CDC) (2011) A Conceptual Framework to Evaluate the Impacts of Water Safety Plans, Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services.
Davison, A., Howard, G., Stevens, M., Callan, P., Fewtrell, L., Deere, D. and Bartram, J. (2005) Water Safety Plans, Geneva: World Health Organisation.
Dyck, A., Exner, M. and Kramer, A. (2007) ‘Experimental based experiences with the introduction of a water safety plan for a multi-located university clinic and its efficacy according to WHO recommendations’, BMC Public Health 7: 34 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-7-34≯.
Godfrey, S., Chand, C.P., Anward, M. and Venkateswara Rao, C. (2005) ‘Water-safety plans for piped supplies with limited data: a case study from India’, Waterlines 23: 19-21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/0262-8104.2005.021≯.
Gunnarsdottir, M.J. and Gissurason, L.R. (2008) ‘HACCP and water safety plans in Icelandic water supply: preliminary evaluation of experience’, Journal of Water and Health 6: 377-82 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2008.055≯.
Gunnarsdottir, M.J., Gardarsson, S.M., Elliot, M., Sigmundsdottir, G. and Bartram, J. (2012a) ‘Benefits of water safety plans: microbiology, compliance and public health’, Environmental Science and Technology 46: 7783-89 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es300372h≯.
Gunnarsdottir, M.J., Gardarsson, S.M. and Bartram, J. (2012b) ‘Icelandic experience with water safety plans’, Water Science and Technology 65: 277-88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2012.801≯.
Jayaratne, A. (2008) ‘Application of a risk management system to improve drinking water safety’, Journal of Water and Health 6: 547-57 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2008.061≯.
Mahmud, S.G., Shamsuddin, S.A.J., Froze Ahmed, M., Davison, A., Deere, D. and Howard, G. (2007) ‘Development and implementation of water safety plans for small water supplies in Bangladesh: benefits and lessons learned’, Journal of Water and Health 5, 585-97 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2007.045≯.
Mälzer, H.J., Staben, N., Hein, A. and Merkel, W. (2010) ‘Identification, assessment and control of hazards in water supply: experience from Water Safety Plan implementation in Germany’, Water Science and Technology 61: 1307-15 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.026≯.
Rubin, H.J. and Rubin, I.S. (1995) Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Summerill, C. (2010) Improved Water Safety Planning: Insights into the Role of Organisational Culture, PhD Thesis, Bedford, UK: Cranfield University.
Summerill, C., Smith, J., Webster, J. and Pollard, S. (2010) ‘An international review of the challenges associated with securing ‘buy-in’ for water safety plans within providers of drinking water supplies’, Journal of Water and Health 8: 387-98 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2010.047≯.
Tibatemwa, S., Godfrey, S., Niwagaba, C. and Kizito, F. (2005) ‘Implementing watersafety plans in urban piped water supplies in Uganda’, Waterlines 23: 8-10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/0262-8104.2005.017≯.
Vieira, J.M.P. (2011) ‘A strategic approach for Water Safety Plans implementation in Portugal’, Journal of Water and Health 9: 107-16 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2010.150≯.
Viljoen, C. (2010) ‘The World Health Organisation's water safety plan is much more than just an integrated drinking water quality management plan’, Water Science and Technology 61: 173-79 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.792≯.
World Health Organization (WHO) (2008) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: Incorporating 1st and 2nd Addenda, Vol.1, Recommendations, 3rd edn, Geneva: World Health Organisation.
WHO (2012) Water Safety Planning for Small Community Water Supplies: Step-by-step Risk Management Guidance for Drinking-water Supplies in Small Communities, Geneva: World Health Organization.
Yokoi, H., Embutsu, I., Yoda, M. and Waseda, K. (2006) ‘Study on the introduction of hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) concept of the water quality management in water supply system’, Water Science and Technology 53(4-5): 483-92. <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2006.153≯
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