Qualitative risk assessment of self-supply hand-dug wells in Abeokuta, Nigeria: a water safety plan approach
The development of water safety plans for self-supply systems should be based on a thorough understanding of contamination events, identified risk factors, and source management practices. This paper presents an experience from a self-supply hand-dug wells assessment in Abeokuta, Nigeria, which illustrates the water safety plans process. A total of 99 hand-dug wells were assessed. Particular reference was made to the use of qualitative risk assessments of identified hazardous events for water safety plans for these types of systems in developing countries. Sixteen hazardous events are identified with 21 causes found to be responsible for the events. Proximity of hand-dug wells to sources of contaminations, coupled with the problems of construction, operation, and hygiene are highlighted as four major water safety threats. Five major risk factors are further associated with self-supply wells in the location. The paper noted the urgent interventions needed for the safety of source, water, and public health and discusses the need to provide multiple safe barriers against source water contamination. It concludes that qualitative risk assessment based on well-defined sanitary survey and risk characterization processes can provide a basic tool for water safety interventions; that is, interventions to household-level systems where sophisticated hazard and risk analytical approaches may not be feasible.Breach, B. and Williams, T. (2006) ‘The pivotal role of water safety plans’, Water 21 8 (4): 21-22. <www.iwaponline.com/w21/00804/w21008040021.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/w21/00804/w21008040021.htm
Breach, B., Hirata, R. and Vieira, J. (2011) ‘Protecting groundwater supplies through a water safety plan approach’, Water 21 13 (2): 16-19. <www.iwaponline.com/w21/01302/w21013020016.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/w21/01302/w21013020016.htm
Carter, R.C. (2006) Investigating Options for Self-Help Water Supply: From Field Research to Pilot Interventions in Uganda, Rural Water Supply Series, St Gallen, Switzerland: WSP/RWSN.
Davison, A., Howard, G., Stevens, M., Callan, P., Fewtrell, L., Deere, D. and Bartram, J. (2005) Water Safety Plans: Managing Drinking-Water Quality from Catchment to Consumer, Geneva: WHO.
Duah, A.A. (2006) ‘Groundwater contamination in Ghana’, in Y. Xu and B. Usher (eds), Groundwater Pollution in Africa, pp. 57-64 , London: Taylor and Francis.
Foster, S. (2008) ‘Urban water supply security in Sub-Saharan Africa: making best use of groundwater’, Session 5, International Conference of Groundwater and Climate in Africa, 24-28 June 2008, Kampala, Uganda [online], <www.worldbank.org/gwmate≯ [accessed 6 November 2009]. www.worldbank.org/gwmate
Garzon, F. (2006) ‘Water safety plans in a developing country context’, Water 21 8 (1): 37-8. <www.iwaponline.com/w21/00801/w21008010037.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/w21/00801/w21008010037.htm
Godfrey, S. and Howard, G. (2005) Water Safety Plans: Supporting Urban Piped Water Supply Programs in Developing Countries, Loughborough, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre.
Gregor, J. (2007) ‘Water safety planning in the Pacific Islands: Towards safe supplies’, Water 21 9 (4): 16-17. <www.iwaponline.com/w21/00904/w21009040016.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012] www.iwaponline.com/w21/00904/w21009040016.htm
Howard, G. (2003) ‘Water safety plans for small systems: A model for applying HACCP concepts for cost-effective monitoring in developing countries’, Water Science and Technology 47 (3): 215-20. <www.iwaponline.com/wst/04703/03/default.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/wst/04703/03/default.htm
Lloyd, B. and Bartram, J. (1991) ‘Surveillance solutions to microbiological problems in water quality control in developing countries’, Water Science and Technology 24 (2): 61-75. <www.iwaponline.com/wst/02402/wst024020061.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/wst/02402/wst024020061.htm
Lloyd, B. and Helmer, R. (1990) Surveillance of Drinking-Water Quality in Rural Areas, London: Longman.
Magrath, J. (2006) Towards Sustainable Water Supply Solutions in Rural Sierra Leone, Oxford: Oxfam Research Report.
Oluwasanya, G., Smith, J. and Carter, R. (2011a) ‘Self supply systems: urban dug wells in Abeokuta, Nigeria’, Journal of Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 11: 172-78 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2011.026≯.
Oluwasanya, G., Smith, J. and Carter R. (2011b) ’Towards appropriate sanitary inspection tools for self-supply systems in developing countries’, Conference Proceedings, 35th WEDC International Conference, 6-8 July 2011, Loughborough, UK.
Orebiyi, E.O., Awomeso, J.A., Idowu, O.A., Martins, O., Oguntoke O. and Taiwo, A.M. (2010) ‘Assessment of pollution hazards of shallow well water in Abeokuta and environs, Southwest, Nigeria’, American Journal of Environmental Sciences 6 (1): 50-56 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3844/ajessp.2010.50.56≯.
Pedley, S. and Howard, G. (1997) ‘The public health implications of microbiological contamination of groundwater’, Journal of Engineering Geology 30: 179-88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/GSL.QJEGH.1997.030.P2.10≯.
Schmoll, O., Howard, G., Chilton, J. and Chorus, I. (2006) Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality of Drinking-Water Sources, 1st edn, London: IWA.
Sutton, S. (2004) Self Supply: Small Community and Household Water Supplies - Concept Note [website], RWSN, <www.rwsn.ch/documentation/skatdocumentation.2005-11-14.5396467659≯, [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.rwsn.ch/documentation/skatdocumentation.2005-11-14.5396467659
WHO (2004) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Recommendations, 3rd edn, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
Breach, B. and Williams, T. (2006) ‘The pivotal role of water safety plans’, Water 21 8 (4): 21-22. <www.iwaponline.com/w21/00804/w21008040021.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/w21/00804/w21008040021.htm
Breach, B., Hirata, R. and Vieira, J. (2011) ‘Protecting groundwater supplies through a water safety plan approach’, Water 21 13 (2): 16-19. <www.iwaponline.com/w21/01302/w21013020016.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/w21/01302/w21013020016.htm
Carter, R.C. (2006) Investigating Options for Self-Help Water Supply: From Field Research to Pilot Interventions in Uganda, Rural Water Supply Series, St Gallen, Switzerland: WSP/RWSN.
Davison, A., Howard, G., Stevens, M., Callan, P., Fewtrell, L., Deere, D. and Bartram, J. (2005) Water Safety Plans: Managing Drinking-Water Quality from Catchment to Consumer, Geneva: WHO.
Duah, A.A. (2006) ‘Groundwater contamination in Ghana’, in Y. Xu and B. Usher (eds), Groundwater Pollution in Africa, pp. 57-64 , London: Taylor and Francis.
Foster, S. (2008) ‘Urban water supply security in Sub-Saharan Africa: making best use of groundwater’, Session 5, International Conference of Groundwater and Climate in Africa, 24-28 June 2008, Kampala, Uganda [online], <www.worldbank.org/gwmate≯ [accessed 6 November 2009]. www.worldbank.org/gwmate
Garzon, F. (2006) ‘Water safety plans in a developing country context’, Water 21 8 (1): 37-8. <www.iwaponline.com/w21/00801/w21008010037.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/w21/00801/w21008010037.htm
Godfrey, S. and Howard, G. (2005) Water Safety Plans: Supporting Urban Piped Water Supply Programs in Developing Countries, Loughborough, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre.
Gregor, J. (2007) ‘Water safety planning in the Pacific Islands: Towards safe supplies’, Water 21 9 (4): 16-17. <www.iwaponline.com/w21/00904/w21009040016.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012] www.iwaponline.com/w21/00904/w21009040016.htm
Howard, G. (2003) ‘Water safety plans for small systems: A model for applying HACCP concepts for cost-effective monitoring in developing countries’, Water Science and Technology 47 (3): 215-20. <www.iwaponline.com/wst/04703/03/default.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/wst/04703/03/default.htm
Lloyd, B. and Bartram, J. (1991) ‘Surveillance solutions to microbiological problems in water quality control in developing countries’, Water Science and Technology 24 (2): 61-75. <www.iwaponline.com/wst/02402/wst024020061.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/wst/02402/wst024020061.htm
Lloyd, B. and Helmer, R. (1990) Surveillance of Drinking-Water Quality in Rural Areas, London: Longman.
Magrath, J. (2006) Towards Sustainable Water Supply Solutions in Rural Sierra Leone, Oxford: Oxfam Research Report.
Oluwasanya, G., Smith, J. and Carter, R. (2011a) ‘Self supply systems: urban dug wells in Abeokuta, Nigeria’, Journal of Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 11: 172-78 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2011.026≯.
Oluwasanya, G., Smith, J. and Carter R. (2011b) ’Towards appropriate sanitary inspection tools for self-supply systems in developing countries’, Conference Proceedings, 35th WEDC International Conference, 6-8 July 2011, Loughborough, UK.
Orebiyi, E.O., Awomeso, J.A., Idowu, O.A., Martins, O., Oguntoke O. and Taiwo, A.M. (2010) ‘Assessment of pollution hazards of shallow well water in Abeokuta and environs, Southwest, Nigeria’, American Journal of Environmental Sciences 6 (1): 50-56 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3844/ajessp.2010.50.56≯.
Pedley, S. and Howard, G. (1997) ‘The public health implications of microbiological contamination of groundwater’, Journal of Engineering Geology 30: 179-88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/GSL.QJEGH.1997.030.P2.10≯.
Schmoll, O., Howard, G., Chilton, J. and Chorus, I. (2006) Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality of Drinking-Water Sources, 1st edn, London: IWA.
Sutton, S. (2004) Self Supply: Small Community and Household Water Supplies - Concept Note [website], RWSN, <www.rwsn.ch/documentation/skatdocumentation.2005-11-14.5396467659≯, [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.rwsn.ch/documentation/skatdocumentation.2005-11-14.5396467659
WHO (2004) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Recommendations, 3rd edn, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
Breach, B. and Williams, T. (2006) ‘The pivotal role of water safety plans’, Water 21 8 (4): 21-22. <www.iwaponline.com/w21/00804/w21008040021.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/w21/00804/w21008040021.htm
Breach, B., Hirata, R. and Vieira, J. (2011) ‘Protecting groundwater supplies through a water safety plan approach’, Water 21 13 (2): 16-19. <www.iwaponline.com/w21/01302/w21013020016.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/w21/01302/w21013020016.htm
Carter, R.C. (2006) Investigating Options for Self-Help Water Supply: From Field Research to Pilot Interventions in Uganda, Rural Water Supply Series, St Gallen, Switzerland: WSP/RWSN.
Davison, A., Howard, G., Stevens, M., Callan, P., Fewtrell, L., Deere, D. and Bartram, J. (2005) Water Safety Plans: Managing Drinking-Water Quality from Catchment to Consumer, Geneva: WHO.
Duah, A.A. (2006) ‘Groundwater contamination in Ghana’, in Y. Xu and B. Usher (eds), Groundwater Pollution in Africa, pp. 57-64 , London: Taylor and Francis.
Foster, S. (2008) ‘Urban water supply security in Sub-Saharan Africa: making best use of groundwater’, Session 5, International Conference of Groundwater and Climate in Africa, 24-28 June 2008, Kampala, Uganda [online], <www.worldbank.org/gwmate≯ [accessed 6 November 2009]. www.worldbank.org/gwmate
Garzon, F. (2006) ‘Water safety plans in a developing country context’, Water 21 8 (1): 37-8. <www.iwaponline.com/w21/00801/w21008010037.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/w21/00801/w21008010037.htm
Godfrey, S. and Howard, G. (2005) Water Safety Plans: Supporting Urban Piped Water Supply Programs in Developing Countries, Loughborough, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre.
Gregor, J. (2007) ‘Water safety planning in the Pacific Islands: Towards safe supplies’, Water 21 9 (4): 16-17. <www.iwaponline.com/w21/00904/w21009040016.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012] www.iwaponline.com/w21/00904/w21009040016.htm
Howard, G. (2003) ‘Water safety plans for small systems: A model for applying HACCP concepts for cost-effective monitoring in developing countries’, Water Science and Technology 47 (3): 215-20. <www.iwaponline.com/wst/04703/03/default.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/wst/04703/03/default.htm
Lloyd, B. and Bartram, J. (1991) ‘Surveillance solutions to microbiological problems in water quality control in developing countries’, Water Science and Technology 24 (2): 61-75. <www.iwaponline.com/wst/02402/wst024020061.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/wst/02402/wst024020061.htm
Lloyd, B. and Helmer, R. (1990) Surveillance of Drinking-Water Quality in Rural Areas, London: Longman.
Magrath, J. (2006) Towards Sustainable Water Supply Solutions in Rural Sierra Leone, Oxford: Oxfam Research Report.
Oluwasanya, G., Smith, J. and Carter, R. (2011a) ‘Self supply systems: urban dug wells in Abeokuta, Nigeria’, Journal of Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 11: 172-78 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2011.026≯.
Oluwasanya, G., Smith, J. and Carter R. (2011b) ’Towards appropriate sanitary inspection tools for self-supply systems in developing countries’, Conference Proceedings, 35th WEDC International Conference, 6-8 July 2011, Loughborough, UK.
Orebiyi, E.O., Awomeso, J.A., Idowu, O.A., Martins, O., Oguntoke O. and Taiwo, A.M. (2010) ‘Assessment of pollution hazards of shallow well water in Abeokuta and environs, Southwest, Nigeria’, American Journal of Environmental Sciences 6 (1): 50-56 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3844/ajessp.2010.50.56≯.
Pedley, S. and Howard, G. (1997) ‘The public health implications of microbiological contamination of groundwater’, Journal of Engineering Geology 30: 179-88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/GSL.QJEGH.1997.030.P2.10≯.
Schmoll, O., Howard, G., Chilton, J. and Chorus, I. (2006) Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality of Drinking-Water Sources, 1st edn, London: IWA.
Sutton, S. (2004) Self Supply: Small Community and Household Water Supplies - Concept Note [website], RWSN, <www.rwsn.ch/documentation/skatdocumentation.2005-11-14.5396467659≯, [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.rwsn.ch/documentation/skatdocumentation.2005-11-14.5396467659
WHO (2004) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Recommendations, 3rd edn, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
Breach, B. and Williams, T. (2006) ‘The pivotal role of water safety plans’, Water 21 8 (4): 21-22. <www.iwaponline.com/w21/00804/w21008040021.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/w21/00804/w21008040021.htm
Breach, B., Hirata, R. and Vieira, J. (2011) ‘Protecting groundwater supplies through a water safety plan approach’, Water 21 13 (2): 16-19. <www.iwaponline.com/w21/01302/w21013020016.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/w21/01302/w21013020016.htm
Carter, R.C. (2006) Investigating Options for Self-Help Water Supply: From Field Research to Pilot Interventions in Uganda, Rural Water Supply Series, St Gallen, Switzerland: WSP/RWSN.
Davison, A., Howard, G., Stevens, M., Callan, P., Fewtrell, L., Deere, D. and Bartram, J. (2005) Water Safety Plans: Managing Drinking-Water Quality from Catchment to Consumer, Geneva: WHO.
Duah, A.A. (2006) ‘Groundwater contamination in Ghana’, in Y. Xu and B. Usher (eds), Groundwater Pollution in Africa, pp. 57-64 , London: Taylor and Francis.
Foster, S. (2008) ‘Urban water supply security in Sub-Saharan Africa: making best use of groundwater’, Session 5, International Conference of Groundwater and Climate in Africa, 24-28 June 2008, Kampala, Uganda [online], <www.worldbank.org/gwmate≯ [accessed 6 November 2009]. www.worldbank.org/gwmate
Garzon, F. (2006) ‘Water safety plans in a developing country context’, Water 21 8 (1): 37-8. <www.iwaponline.com/w21/00801/w21008010037.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/w21/00801/w21008010037.htm
Godfrey, S. and Howard, G. (2005) Water Safety Plans: Supporting Urban Piped Water Supply Programs in Developing Countries, Loughborough, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre.
Gregor, J. (2007) ‘Water safety planning in the Pacific Islands: Towards safe supplies’, Water 21 9 (4): 16-17. <www.iwaponline.com/w21/00904/w21009040016.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012] www.iwaponline.com/w21/00904/w21009040016.htm
Howard, G. (2003) ‘Water safety plans for small systems: A model for applying HACCP concepts for cost-effective monitoring in developing countries’, Water Science and Technology 47 (3): 215-20. <www.iwaponline.com/wst/04703/03/default.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/wst/04703/03/default.htm
Lloyd, B. and Bartram, J. (1991) ‘Surveillance solutions to microbiological problems in water quality control in developing countries’, Water Science and Technology 24 (2): 61-75. <www.iwaponline.com/wst/02402/wst024020061.htm≯ [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.iwaponline.com/wst/02402/wst024020061.htm
Lloyd, B. and Helmer, R. (1990) Surveillance of Drinking-Water Quality in Rural Areas, London: Longman.
Magrath, J. (2006) Towards Sustainable Water Supply Solutions in Rural Sierra Leone, Oxford: Oxfam Research Report.
Oluwasanya, G., Smith, J. and Carter, R. (2011a) ‘Self supply systems: urban dug wells in Abeokuta, Nigeria’, Journal of Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 11: 172-78 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2011.026≯.
Oluwasanya, G., Smith, J. and Carter R. (2011b) ’Towards appropriate sanitary inspection tools for self-supply systems in developing countries’, Conference Proceedings, 35th WEDC International Conference, 6-8 July 2011, Loughborough, UK.
Orebiyi, E.O., Awomeso, J.A., Idowu, O.A., Martins, O., Oguntoke O. and Taiwo, A.M. (2010) ‘Assessment of pollution hazards of shallow well water in Abeokuta and environs, Southwest, Nigeria’, American Journal of Environmental Sciences 6 (1): 50-56 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3844/ajessp.2010.50.56≯.
Pedley, S. and Howard, G. (1997) ‘The public health implications of microbiological contamination of groundwater’, Journal of Engineering Geology 30: 179-88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/GSL.QJEGH.1997.030.P2.10≯.
Schmoll, O., Howard, G., Chilton, J. and Chorus, I. (2006) Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality of Drinking-Water Sources, 1st edn, London: IWA.
Sutton, S. (2004) Self Supply: Small Community and Household Water Supplies - Concept Note [website], RWSN, <www.rwsn.ch/documentation/skatdocumentation.2005-11-14.5396467659≯, [accessed 12 December 2012]. www.rwsn.ch/documentation/skatdocumentation.2005-11-14.5396467659
WHO (2004) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Recommendations, 3rd edn, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
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