Water, sanitation, and hygiene in emergencies: summary review and recommendations for further research
Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions can interrupt diarrhoeal disease transmission and reduce the burden of morbidity and mortality associated with faecal-oral infections. We know that rapid response of effective WASH infrastructure and services can prevent or lessen the impact of diarrhoeal outbreaks that can exacerbate the human suffering accompanying humanitarian crises. In this review summary, we present an overview of current knowledge about what works to prevent disease in emergency WASH response. We know that providing safe water, safe excreta disposal, and basic hygiene measures such as hand washing with soap are effective interventions both within emergency settings as well as in longer-term development, but innovation and further research are needed to make WASH response more effective. We propose key areas for critical research to support the evidence base for WASH interventions in emergencies and promote innovation.Anema, A. and Fesselet, J.F. (2003) ‘A volcanic issue: Lessons learned in Goma’, Waterlines 21: 9-11.
Atuyambe, L.M., Ediau, M., Orach, C.G., Musenero, M. and Bazeyo, W. (2011) ‘Land slide disaster in eastern Uganda: Rapid assessment of water, sanitation and hygiene situation in Bulucheke camp, Bududa district’, Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source 10: 38.
Bartram, J. and Cairncross, S. (2010) ‘Hygiene, sanitation, and water: Forgotten foundations of health’, PLoS Medicine 7: e1000367.
Bastable, A. and Lamb, J. (2012) ‘Innovative designs and approaches in sanitation for challenging and complex humanitarian urban contexts’, Waterlines 31.
Bayoh, M.N., Akhwale, W., Ombok, M., Sang, D., Enoki, S.C., Koros, D., Walker, E.D., Williams, H.A., Burke, H., Armstrong, G.L., Cetron, M.S., Weinberg, M., Breiman, R. & Hamel, M.J. (2011) ‘Malaria in Kakuma refugee camp, Turkana, Kenya: Facilitation of Anopheles arabiensis vector populations by installed water distribution and catchment systems’, Malaria Journal 10: 149.
Boydell, R.A. (1999) ‘Making rural water supply and sanitation projects sustainable’, Waterlines 18: 2-4.
Brown, J., Sobsey, M.D. and Proum, S. (2007) Use of Ceramic Water Filters in Cambodia, WSP-World Bank Field Note, Washington, DC.
Clasen, T. and Boisson, S. (2006) ‘Household-based ceramic water filters for the treatment of drinking water in disaster response: An assessment of a pilot programme in the Dominican Republic’, Water Practice & Technology <http://www.iwaponline.com/wpt/001/wpt0010031.htm≯ http://www.iwaponline.com/wpt/001/wpt0010031.htm≯
Colindres, R.E., Jain, S., Bowen, A., Mintz, E. & Domond, P. (2007) ‘After the flood: An evaluation of in-home drinking water treatment with combined flocculent-disinfectant following Tropical Storm Jeanne: Gonaives, Haiti, 2004’, Journal of Water & Health 5: 367-74.
Connolly, M.A., Gayer, M., Ryan, M.J., Salama, P., Spiegel, P. and Heymann, D.L. (2004) ‘Communicable diseases in complex emergencies: Impact and challenges’, Lancet 364: 1974-83.
Cronin, A.A., Shrestha, D., Cornier, N., Abdulla, F., Ezard, N. and Aramburu, C. (2008) ‘A review of water and sanitation provision in refugee camps in association with selected health and nutrition indicators: The need for integrated service provision’, Journal of Water and Health 6: 1-13.
Davis, J. (1988) ‘From emergency relief to long-term water development’, Waterlines 6: 29-31.
Djonoputro, E.R., Blackett, I., Rosenboom, J.W. and Weitz, A. (2010) ‘Understanding sanitation options in challenging environments’, Waterlines 29: 186-203.
Doocy, S. & Burnham, G. (2006) ‘Point-of-use water treatment and diarrhoea reduction in the emergency context: An effectiveness trial in Liberia’, Tropical Medicine and International Health 11: 1542-52.
Gupta, S.K., Suantio, A., Gray, A., Widyastuti, E., Jain, N., Rolos, R., Hoekstra, R.M. & Quick, R. (2007) ‘Factors associated with E. coli contamination of household drinking water among tsunami and earthquake survivors, Indonesia’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene 76: 1158-62.
Harvey, P.A. & Reed, R.A. (2005) ‘Planning environmental sanitation programmes in emergencies’, Disasters 29: 129-51.
Hashizume, M., Wagatsuma, Y., Faruque, A.S., HayashiI, T., Hunter, P.R., Armstrong, B. and Sack, D.A. (2008) ‘Factors determining vulnerability to diarrhoea during and after severe floods in Bangladesh’, Journal of Water & Health 6: 323-32.
Hatch, D.L., Waldman, R.J., Lungu, G.W. and Piri, C. (1994) ‘Epidemic cholera during refugee resettlement in Malawi’, International Journal of Epidemiology 23: 1292-9.
Howard, J. (1996) ‘Rethinking the unthinkable effective excreta disposal in emergency situations’, Waterlines 15: 5-6.
Hutin, Y., Luby, S. and Paquet, C. (2003) ‘A large cholera outbreak in Kano City, Nigeria: The importance of hand washing with soap and the danger of street-vended water’, Journal of Water & Health 1: 45-52.
Johannessen, A. (2011) ‘Identifying gaps in emergency sanitation: Design of new kits to increase effectiveness in emergencies’, 2 day workshop, 22-23 February 2011, Stoutenburg, Netherlands.
Kouadio, K.I., Kamigaki, T. & Oshitani, H. (2009) ‘Strategies for communicable diseases response after disasters in developing countries’ (Special Issue: Our social activities are always related to outbreaks of infectious diseases), Journal of Disaster Research 4: 298-308.
Kunii, O., Nakamura, S., Abdur, R. & Wakai, S. (2002) ‘The impact on health and risk factors of the diarrhoea epidemics in the 1998 Bangladesh floods’, Public Health 116: 68-74.
Lantagne, D. (2011) Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage in Emergencies, PhD thesis, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
Lantagne, D. and Clasen, T. (2012) ‘Point-of-use water treatment in emergency response’, Waterlines 31.
Lora-Suarez, F., Marin-Vazquez, C., Loango, N., Gallego, M., Torres, E., Gonzales, M.M., Castano-Osorio, J.C. and Gome-Marin, J.E. (2002) ‘Giardiasis in children living in post-earthquake camps from Armenia (Colombia)’, BMC Public Health 2: 5.
Luby, S., Agboatwalla, M., Raza, A., Sobel, J., Mintz, E., Baier, K., Rahbar, M., Qureshi, S., Hassan, R., Ghouri, F., Hoekstra, R.M. and Gangarosa, E. (2001) ‘A low-cost intervention for cleaner drinking water in Karachi, Pakistan’, International Journal of Infectious Diseases 5: 144-50.
Luff, R. (2004) ‘Paying too much for purity? Development of more appropriate emergency water treatment methods’, in People-centered Approaches to Water and Environmental Sanitation, WEDC International Conference, 2004 Vientiane, Lao PDR.
Mausezahl, D., Christen, A., Pacheco, G.D., Alvarez Tellez, F., Iriarte, M., Zapata, M.E., Cevallos, M., Hattendorf, J., Cattaneo, M.D., Arnold, B., Smith, T.A. and Colford, J.M. Jr (2009) ‘Solar drinking water disinfection (SODIS) to reduce childhood diarrhoea in rural Bolivia: A cluster-randomized, controlled trial’, PLoS Medicine 6: e1000125.
Mong, Y., Kaiser, R., Ibrahim, D., Rasoatiana, Razafimbololona, L. & Quick, R.E. (2001) ‘Impact of the safe water system on water quality in cyclone-affected communities in Madagascar’, American Journal of Public Health 91: 1577-9.
Moss, S. (2004) ‘Complex drought’ in southern Africa: A water and sanitation perspective’, Waterlines 22: 19-21.
Mourad, T.A.A. (2004) ‘Palestinian refugee conditions associated with intestinal parasites and diarrhoea: Nuseirat refugee camp as a case study’, Public Health 118: 131-42.
Nawaz, J., Lal, S., Raza, S. and House, S. (2010) ‘Oxfam experience of providing screened toilet, bathing and menstruation units in its earthquake response in Pakistan’, Gender & Development 18: 81-86.
Patel, D., Brooks, N. & Bastable, A. (2011) ‘Excreta disposal in emergencies: Bag and Peepoo trials with internally displaced people in Port-au-Prince’, Waterlines 30: 61-77.
Paul, P. (2005) ‘Proposals for a rapidly deployable emergency sanitation treatment system’, in Kayaga, S. (ed.), Maximizing the Benefits from Water and Environmental Sanitation: 31st WEDC Conference, Kampala, Uganda. Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University of Technology, Loughborough.
Peterson, E.A., Roberts, L., Toole, M.J. and Peterson, D.E. (1998) ‘The effect of soap distribution on diarrhoea: Nyamithuthu Refugee Camp’, International Journal of Epidemiology 27: 520-4.
Pinera, J.F. and Reed, R.A. (2009) ‘A tale of two cities: Restoring water services in Kabul and Monrovia’, Disasters 33: 574-90.
Randall, J.J., Navaratne, A., Rand, E.C. and Hagos, Y. (2008) ‘Integrating environmental sustainability into the water and sanitation sector: Lessons from tsunami disaster response’, in Proceedings of the 33rd WEDC International Conference Access to Sanitation and Safe Water: Global Partnerships and Local Actions, Accra, Ghana.
Reller, M.E., Mong, Y.J., Hoekstra, R.M. and Quick, R.E. (2001) ‘Cholera prevention with traditional and novel water treatment methods: An outbreak investigation in Fort-Dauphin, Madagascar’, American Journal of Public Health 91: 1608-10.
Roberts, L., Chartier, Y., Chartier, O., Malenga, G., Toole, M. & Rodka, H. (2001) ‘Keeping clean water clean in a Malawi refugee camp: A randomized intervention trial’, Bulletin of the World Health Organization 79: 280-87.
Sencan, I., Sahin, I., Kaya, D., Oksuz, S. & Yildirim, M. (2004) ‘Assessment of HAV and HEV seroprevalence in children living in post-earthquake camps from Duzce, Turkey’, European Journal of Epidemiology 19: 461-5.
Shelley, C. (1994) ‘Refugee water supplies: Some political considerations’, Waterlines 13: 4-6.
Sherlock, P. (1988) ‘Coping with equipment in emergencies’, Waterlines 6: 26-28.
Shultz, A., Omollo, J.O., Burke, H., Qassim, M., Ochieng, J.B., Weinberg, M., Feikin, D.R. and Breiman, R.F. (2009) ‘Cholera outbreak in Kenyan refugee camp: Risk factors for illness and importance of sanitation’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene 80: 640-5.
Sphere Project (2011) The Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response, Sphere, Practical Action Publishing, Rugby, UK.
Sommer, M. (2012) ‘Menstrual hygiene management in humanitarian emergencies: Gaps and Recommendations’, Waterlines 31.
Spiegel, P., Sheik, M., Gotway-Crawford, C. and Salama, P. (2002) ‘Health programmes and policies associated with decreased mortality in displaced people in postemergency phase camps: A retrospective study’, Lancet 360: 1927-34.
Steele, A., Clarke, B. and Watkins, O. (2008) ‘Impact of jerry can disinfection in a camp environment: Experiences in an IDP camp in Northern Uganda’, Journal of Water and Health 6: 559-64.
Toole, M.J. and Waldman, R.J. (1997) ‘The public health aspects of complex emergencies and refugee situations’, Annual Review of Public Health 18: 283-312.
Walden, V.M., Lamond, E.A. and Field, S.A. (2005) ‘Container contamination as a possible source of a diarrhoea outbreak in Abou Shouk camp, Darfur province, Sudan’ (Special Issue: Food security in complex emergencies), Disasters 29: 213-21.
Wisner, B. and Adams, J. (2002) Environmental Health in Emergencies and Disasters: A Practical Guide, World Health Organization, Geneva.
Wolbring, G. (2011) ‘Disability, displacement and public health: A vision for Haiti’, Canadian Journal of Public Health 102: 157-59.
Anema, A. and Fesselet, J.F. (2003) ‘A volcanic issue: Lessons learned in Goma’, Waterlines 21: 9-11.
Atuyambe, L.M., Ediau, M., Orach, C.G., Musenero, M. and Bazeyo, W. (2011) ‘Land slide disaster in eastern Uganda: Rapid assessment of water, sanitation and hygiene situation in Bulucheke camp, Bududa district’, Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source 10: 38.
Bartram, J. and Cairncross, S. (2010) ‘Hygiene, sanitation, and water: Forgotten foundations of health’, PLoS Medicine 7: e1000367.
Bastable, A. and Lamb, J. (2012) ‘Innovative designs and approaches in sanitation for challenging and complex humanitarian urban contexts’, Waterlines 31.
Bayoh, M.N., Akhwale, W., Ombok, M., Sang, D., Enoki, S.C., Koros, D., Walker, E.D., Williams, H.A., Burke, H., Armstrong, G.L., Cetron, M.S., Weinberg, M., Breiman, R. & Hamel, M.J. (2011) ‘Malaria in Kakuma refugee camp, Turkana, Kenya: Facilitation of Anopheles arabiensis vector populations by installed water distribution and catchment systems’, Malaria Journal 10: 149.
Boydell, R.A. (1999) ‘Making rural water supply and sanitation projects sustainable’, Waterlines 18: 2-4.
Brown, J., Sobsey, M.D. and Proum, S. (2007) Use of Ceramic Water Filters in Cambodia, WSP-World Bank Field Note, Washington, DC.
Clasen, T. and Boisson, S. (2006) ‘Household-based ceramic water filters for the treatment of drinking water in disaster response: An assessment of a pilot programme in the Dominican Republic’, Water Practice & Technology <http://www.iwaponline.com/wpt/001/wpt0010031.htm≯ http://www.iwaponline.com/wpt/001/wpt0010031.htm≯
Colindres, R.E., Jain, S., Bowen, A., Mintz, E. & Domond, P. (2007) ‘After the flood: An evaluation of in-home drinking water treatment with combined flocculent-disinfectant following Tropical Storm Jeanne: Gonaives, Haiti, 2004’, Journal of Water & Health 5: 367-74.
Connolly, M.A., Gayer, M., Ryan, M.J., Salama, P., Spiegel, P. and Heymann, D.L. (2004) ‘Communicable diseases in complex emergencies: Impact and challenges’, Lancet 364: 1974-83.
Cronin, A.A., Shrestha, D., Cornier, N., Abdulla, F., Ezard, N. and Aramburu, C. (2008) ‘A review of water and sanitation provision in refugee camps in association with selected health and nutrition indicators: The need for integrated service provision’, Journal of Water and Health 6: 1-13.
Davis, J. (1988) ‘From emergency relief to long-term water development’, Waterlines 6: 29-31.
Djonoputro, E.R., Blackett, I., Rosenboom, J.W. and Weitz, A. (2010) ‘Understanding sanitation options in challenging environments’, Waterlines 29: 186-203.
Doocy, S. & Burnham, G. (2006) ‘Point-of-use water treatment and diarrhoea reduction in the emergency context: An effectiveness trial in Liberia’, Tropical Medicine and International Health 11: 1542-52.
Gupta, S.K., Suantio, A., Gray, A., Widyastuti, E., Jain, N., Rolos, R., Hoekstra, R.M. & Quick, R. (2007) ‘Factors associated with E. coli contamination of household drinking water among tsunami and earthquake survivors, Indonesia’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene 76: 1158-62.
Harvey, P.A. & Reed, R.A. (2005) ‘Planning environmental sanitation programmes in emergencies’, Disasters 29: 129-51.
Hashizume, M., Wagatsuma, Y., Faruque, A.S., HayashiI, T., Hunter, P.R., Armstrong, B. and Sack, D.A. (2008) ‘Factors determining vulnerability to diarrhoea during and after severe floods in Bangladesh’, Journal of Water & Health 6: 323-32.
Hatch, D.L., Waldman, R.J., Lungu, G.W. and Piri, C. (1994) ‘Epidemic cholera during refugee resettlement in Malawi’, International Journal of Epidemiology 23: 1292-9.
Howard, J. (1996) ‘Rethinking the unthinkable effective excreta disposal in emergency situations’, Waterlines 15: 5-6.
Hutin, Y., Luby, S. and Paquet, C. (2003) ‘A large cholera outbreak in Kano City, Nigeria: The importance of hand washing with soap and the danger of street-vended water’, Journal of Water & Health 1: 45-52.
Johannessen, A. (2011) ‘Identifying gaps in emergency sanitation: Design of new kits to increase effectiveness in emergencies’, 2 day workshop, 22-23 February 2011, Stoutenburg, Netherlands.
Kouadio, K.I., Kamigaki, T. & Oshitani, H. (2009) ‘Strategies for communicable diseases response after disasters in developing countries’ (Special Issue: Our social activities are always related to outbreaks of infectious diseases), Journal of Disaster Research 4: 298-308.
Kunii, O., Nakamura, S., Abdur, R. & Wakai, S. (2002) ‘The impact on health and risk factors of the diarrhoea epidemics in the 1998 Bangladesh floods’, Public Health 116: 68-74.
Lantagne, D. (2011) Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage in Emergencies, PhD thesis, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
Lantagne, D. and Clasen, T. (2012) ‘Point-of-use water treatment in emergency response’, Waterlines 31.
Lora-Suarez, F., Marin-Vazquez, C., Loango, N., Gallego, M., Torres, E., Gonzales, M.M., Castano-Osorio, J.C. and Gome-Marin, J.E. (2002) ‘Giardiasis in children living in post-earthquake camps from Armenia (Colombia)’, BMC Public Health 2: 5.
Luby, S., Agboatwalla, M., Raza, A., Sobel, J., Mintz, E., Baier, K., Rahbar, M., Qureshi, S., Hassan, R., Ghouri, F., Hoekstra, R.M. and Gangarosa, E. (2001) ‘A low-cost intervention for cleaner drinking water in Karachi, Pakistan’, International Journal of Infectious Diseases 5: 144-50.
Luff, R. (2004) ‘Paying too much for purity? Development of more appropriate emergency water treatment methods’, in People-centered Approaches to Water and Environmental Sanitation, WEDC International Conference, 2004 Vientiane, Lao PDR.
Mausezahl, D., Christen, A., Pacheco, G.D., Alvarez Tellez, F., Iriarte, M., Zapata, M.E., Cevallos, M., Hattendorf, J., Cattaneo, M.D., Arnold, B., Smith, T.A. and Colford, J.M. Jr (2009) ‘Solar drinking water disinfection (SODIS) to reduce childhood diarrhoea in rural Bolivia: A cluster-randomized, controlled trial’, PLoS Medicine 6: e1000125.
Mong, Y., Kaiser, R., Ibrahim, D., Rasoatiana, Razafimbololona, L. & Quick, R.E. (2001) ‘Impact of the safe water system on water quality in cyclone-affected communities in Madagascar’, American Journal of Public Health 91: 1577-9.
Moss, S. (2004) ‘Complex drought’ in southern Africa: A water and sanitation perspective’, Waterlines 22: 19-21.
Mourad, T.A.A. (2004) ‘Palestinian refugee conditions associated with intestinal parasites and diarrhoea: Nuseirat refugee camp as a case study’, Public Health 118: 131-42.
Nawaz, J., Lal, S., Raza, S. and House, S. (2010) ‘Oxfam experience of providing screened toilet, bathing and menstruation units in its earthquake response in Pakistan’, Gender & Development 18: 81-86.
Patel, D., Brooks, N. & Bastable, A. (2011) ‘Excreta disposal in emergencies: Bag and Peepoo trials with internally displaced people in Port-au-Prince’, Waterlines 30: 61-77.
Paul, P. (2005) ‘Proposals for a rapidly deployable emergency sanitation treatment system’, in Kayaga, S. (ed.), Maximizing the Benefits from Water and Environmental Sanitation: 31st WEDC Conference, Kampala, Uganda. Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University of Technology, Loughborough.
Peterson, E.A., Roberts, L., Toole, M.J. and Peterson, D.E. (1998) ‘The effect of soap distribution on diarrhoea: Nyamithuthu Refugee Camp’, International Journal of Epidemiology 27: 520-4.
Pinera, J.F. and Reed, R.A. (2009) ‘A tale of two cities: Restoring water services in Kabul and Monrovia’, Disasters 33: 574-90.
Randall, J.J., Navaratne, A., Rand, E.C. and Hagos, Y. (2008) ‘Integrating environmental sustainability into the water and sanitation sector: Lessons from tsunami disaster response’, in Proceedings of the 33rd WEDC International Conference Access to Sanitation and Safe Water: Global Partnerships and Local Actions, Accra, Ghana.
Reller, M.E., Mong, Y.J., Hoekstra, R.M. and Quick, R.E. (2001) ‘Cholera prevention with traditional and novel water treatment methods: An outbreak investigation in Fort-Dauphin, Madagascar’, American Journal of Public Health 91: 1608-10.
Roberts, L., Chartier, Y., Chartier, O., Malenga, G., Toole, M. & Rodka, H. (2001) ‘Keeping clean water clean in a Malawi refugee camp: A randomized intervention trial’, Bulletin of the World Health Organization 79: 280-87.
Sencan, I., Sahin, I., Kaya, D., Oksuz, S. & Yildirim, M. (2004) ‘Assessment of HAV and HEV seroprevalence in children living in post-earthquake camps from Duzce, Turkey’, European Journal of Epidemiology 19: 461-5.
Shelley, C. (1994) ‘Refugee water supplies: Some political considerations’, Waterlines 13: 4-6.
Sherlock, P. (1988) ‘Coping with equipment in emergencies’, Waterlines 6: 26-28.
Shultz, A., Omollo, J.O., Burke, H., Qassim, M., Ochieng, J.B., Weinberg, M., Feikin, D.R. and Breiman, R.F. (2009) ‘Cholera outbreak in Kenyan refugee camp: Risk factors for illness and importance of sanitation’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene 80: 640-5.
Sphere Project (2011) The Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response, Sphere, Practical Action Publishing, Rugby, UK.
Sommer, M. (2012) ‘Menstrual hygiene management in humanitarian emergencies: Gaps and Recommendations’, Waterlines 31.
Spiegel, P., Sheik, M., Gotway-Crawford, C. and Salama, P. (2002) ‘Health programmes and policies associated with decreased mortality in displaced people in postemergency phase camps: A retrospective study’, Lancet 360: 1927-34.
Steele, A., Clarke, B. and Watkins, O. (2008) ‘Impact of jerry can disinfection in a camp environment: Experiences in an IDP camp in Northern Uganda’, Journal of Water and Health 6: 559-64.
Toole, M.J. and Waldman, R.J. (1997) ‘The public health aspects of complex emergencies and refugee situations’, Annual Review of Public Health 18: 283-312.
Walden, V.M., Lamond, E.A. and Field, S.A. (2005) ‘Container contamination as a possible source of a diarrhoea outbreak in Abou Shouk camp, Darfur province, Sudan’ (Special Issue: Food security in complex emergencies), Disasters 29: 213-21.
Wisner, B. and Adams, J. (2002) Environmental Health in Emergencies and Disasters: A Practical Guide, World Health Organization, Geneva.
Wolbring, G. (2011) ‘Disability, displacement and public health: A vision for Haiti’, Canadian Journal of Public Health 102: 157-59.
Anema, A. and Fesselet, J.F. (2003) ‘A volcanic issue: Lessons learned in Goma’, Waterlines 21: 9-11.
Atuyambe, L.M., Ediau, M., Orach, C.G., Musenero, M. and Bazeyo, W. (2011) ‘Land slide disaster in eastern Uganda: Rapid assessment of water, sanitation and hygiene situation in Bulucheke camp, Bududa district’, Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source 10: 38.
Bartram, J. and Cairncross, S. (2010) ‘Hygiene, sanitation, and water: Forgotten foundations of health’, PLoS Medicine 7: e1000367.
Bastable, A. and Lamb, J. (2012) ‘Innovative designs and approaches in sanitation for challenging and complex humanitarian urban contexts’, Waterlines 31.
Bayoh, M.N., Akhwale, W., Ombok, M., Sang, D., Enoki, S.C., Koros, D., Walker, E.D., Williams, H.A., Burke, H., Armstrong, G.L., Cetron, M.S., Weinberg, M., Breiman, R. & Hamel, M.J. (2011) ‘Malaria in Kakuma refugee camp, Turkana, Kenya: Facilitation of Anopheles arabiensis vector populations by installed water distribution and catchment systems’, Malaria Journal 10: 149.
Boydell, R.A. (1999) ‘Making rural water supply and sanitation projects sustainable’, Waterlines 18: 2-4.
Brown, J., Sobsey, M.D. and Proum, S. (2007) Use of Ceramic Water Filters in Cambodia, WSP-World Bank Field Note, Washington, DC.
Clasen, T. and Boisson, S. (2006) ‘Household-based ceramic water filters for the treatment of drinking water in disaster response: An assessment of a pilot programme in the Dominican Republic’, Water Practice & Technology <http://www.iwaponline.com/wpt/001/wpt0010031.htm≯ http://www.iwaponline.com/wpt/001/wpt0010031.htm≯
Colindres, R.E., Jain, S., Bowen, A., Mintz, E. & Domond, P. (2007) ‘After the flood: An evaluation of in-home drinking water treatment with combined flocculent-disinfectant following Tropical Storm Jeanne: Gonaives, Haiti, 2004’, Journal of Water & Health 5: 367-74.
Connolly, M.A., Gayer, M., Ryan, M.J., Salama, P., Spiegel, P. and Heymann, D.L. (2004) ‘Communicable diseases in complex emergencies: Impact and challenges’, Lancet 364: 1974-83.
Cronin, A.A., Shrestha, D., Cornier, N., Abdulla, F., Ezard, N. and Aramburu, C. (2008) ‘A review of water and sanitation provision in refugee camps in association with selected health and nutrition indicators: The need for integrated service provision’, Journal of Water and Health 6: 1-13.
Davis, J. (1988) ‘From emergency relief to long-term water development’, Waterlines 6: 29-31.
Djonoputro, E.R., Blackett, I., Rosenboom, J.W. and Weitz, A. (2010) ‘Understanding sanitation options in challenging environments’, Waterlines 29: 186-203.
Doocy, S. & Burnham, G. (2006) ‘Point-of-use water treatment and diarrhoea reduction in the emergency context: An effectiveness trial in Liberia’, Tropical Medicine and International Health 11: 1542-52.
Gupta, S.K., Suantio, A., Gray, A., Widyastuti, E., Jain, N., Rolos, R., Hoekstra, R.M. & Quick, R. (2007) ‘Factors associated with E. coli contamination of household drinking water among tsunami and earthquake survivors, Indonesia’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene 76: 1158-62.
Harvey, P.A. & Reed, R.A. (2005) ‘Planning environmental sanitation programmes in emergencies’, Disasters 29: 129-51.
Hashizume, M., Wagatsuma, Y., Faruque, A.S., HayashiI, T., Hunter, P.R., Armstrong, B. and Sack, D.A. (2008) ‘Factors determining vulnerability to diarrhoea during and after severe floods in Bangladesh’, Journal of Water & Health 6: 323-32.
Hatch, D.L., Waldman, R.J., Lungu, G.W. and Piri, C. (1994) ‘Epidemic cholera during refugee resettlement in Malawi’, International Journal of Epidemiology 23: 1292-9.
Howard, J. (1996) ‘Rethinking the unthinkable effective excreta disposal in emergency situations’, Waterlines 15: 5-6.
Hutin, Y., Luby, S. and Paquet, C. (2003) ‘A large cholera outbreak in Kano City, Nigeria: The importance of hand washing with soap and the danger of street-vended water’, Journal of Water & Health 1: 45-52.
Johannessen, A. (2011) ‘Identifying gaps in emergency sanitation: Design of new kits to increase effectiveness in emergencies’, 2 day workshop, 22-23 February 2011, Stoutenburg, Netherlands.
Kouadio, K.I., Kamigaki, T. & Oshitani, H. (2009) ‘Strategies for communicable diseases response after disasters in developing countries’ (Special Issue: Our social activities are always related to outbreaks of infectious diseases), Journal of Disaster Research 4: 298-308.
Kunii, O., Nakamura, S., Abdur, R. & Wakai, S. (2002) ‘The impact on health and risk factors of the diarrhoea epidemics in the 1998 Bangladesh floods’, Public Health 116: 68-74.
Lantagne, D. (2011) Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage in Emergencies, PhD thesis, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
Lantagne, D. and Clasen, T. (2012) ‘Point-of-use water treatment in emergency response’, Waterlines 31.
Lora-Suarez, F., Marin-Vazquez, C., Loango, N., Gallego, M., Torres, E., Gonzales, M.M., Castano-Osorio, J.C. and Gome-Marin, J.E. (2002) ‘Giardiasis in children living in post-earthquake camps from Armenia (Colombia)’, BMC Public Health 2: 5.
Luby, S., Agboatwalla, M., Raza, A., Sobel, J., Mintz, E., Baier, K., Rahbar, M., Qureshi, S., Hassan, R., Ghouri, F., Hoekstra, R.M. and Gangarosa, E. (2001) ‘A low-cost intervention for cleaner drinking water in Karachi, Pakistan’, International Journal of Infectious Diseases 5: 144-50.
Luff, R. (2004) ‘Paying too much for purity? Development of more appropriate emergency water treatment methods’, in People-centered Approaches to Water and Environmental Sanitation, WEDC International Conference, 2004 Vientiane, Lao PDR.
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