Rainwater harvesting in challenging environments: Towards institutional frameworks for sustainable domestic water supply
Saskia Nijhof | Basja Jantowski | Robert Meerman | Ard Schoemaker
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) has proved to be a viable alternative water source in challenging environments where other means of water supply have no or very little potential. In the last two decades, interest in RWH has grown. Several governments of Southern countries have taken the initiative to scale up community-based RWH approaches and networks have been established between Southern and Northern civil society organizations, governments, private sector and research institutes to support and promote upscaling of RWH. This paper describes the approach taken by one of these network organizations in water-scarce, remote and marginalized areas, and discusses lessons learned, challenges and the way forward. The main challenges are: 1) the multi-layer institutional model requires substantial initial investment and effective communication between organizations, water users and governments; 2) women's involvement in community management of RWH systems is still weak; and 3) initial investment costs for rainwater harvesting tanks are relatively high, limiting replication by communities in challenging environments.Ariyabandu, R. de S. (2003) Very-Low-Cost Domestic Roofwater Harvesting in the Humid Tropics: Its Role in Water Policy [online], Development Technology Unit, School of Engineering, University of Warwick. Available from: http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/dtu2/rwh/dfiddocs/r4.pdf [accessed 8 April 2010]. http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/dtu2/rwh/dfiddocs/r4.pdf
Davis, J., White, G., Damodaron, S. and Thorsten, R. (2008) ‘Improving access to water supply and sanitation in urban India: Microfinance for water and sanitation infrastructure development’, Water Science & Technology-WST 58: 4.
Merz, J., Nakarmi, G. and Weingartner, R. (2003) ‘Potential solutions to water scarcity in the rural watersheds of Nepal's middle mountains’, Mountain Research and Development 23 (Feb 2003): 14-18. Available from: www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1659/0276-4741(2003)023%5B0014:PSTWSI%5D2.0.CO%3B [accessed 26 February 2010]. www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1659/0276-4741(2003)023%5B0014:PSTWSI%5D2.0.CO%3B
Partners for Sustainable Development (2005) Rainwater Partnership [online], available from: http://webapps01.un.org/dsd/partnerships/public/partnerships/1385.html [accessed 11 April 2010]. http://webapps01.un.org/dsd/partnerships/public/partnerships/1385.html
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Shrestha, G. (2001) Water Harvesting as an Appropriate Technology, The Global and Local Perspective [online], BS Thesis, Kathmandu University, Nepal. Available from: www.scribd.com/doc/27674886/Water-Harvesting-Thesis-Shortened-Final [accessed 26 February 2010]. www.scribd.com/doc/27674886/Water-Harvesting-Thesis-Shortened-Final
Smet, J. (2003) Domestic Rainwater Harvesting [online], WELL Factsheet. Available from: www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/fact-sheets/fact-sheets-htm/drh.htm [accessed 26 February 2010]. www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/fact-sheets/fact-sheets-htm/drh.htm
Van Steenbergen, F. and Tuinhof, A. (2009) Managing the Water Buffer for Development and Climate Change Adaptation: Groundwater recharge, retention, reuse and rainwater storage [online], Wageningen, The Netherlands: MetaMeta Communications. Available from: http://www.bebuffered.com/downloads/3Rbook_2nd_edition_webversion.pdf [accessed 11 April 2010]. http://www.bebuffered.com/downloads/3Rbook_2nd_edition_webversion.pdf
UNEP (1997) Source Book of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in Latin America and the Caribbean [online], Unit of Sustainable Development and Environment, General Secretariat, Organization of American States, Washington, DC. Available from: http://www.oas.org/osde/publications/unit/oea59e/begin.htm#Contents [accessed 08 April 2010]. http://www.oas.org/osde/publications/unit/oea59e/begin.htm#Contents
WHO (2010) ‘WHO Statistical Information System’ [online], available from: http://www.who.int/whosis/en/index.html [accessed 11 April 2010]. http://www.who.int/whosis/en/index.html
Worm, J. and van Hattum, T. (2006) Rainwater Harvesting for Domestic Use [online], Agrodok 43, Agromisa Foundation and CTA, Wageningen. Available from: www.rainfoundation.org/fileadmin/PublicSite/Manuals/AGRODOK_RWH_43-e-2006-small.pdf [accessed 26 February 2010]. www.rainfoundation.org/fileadmin/PublicSite/Manuals/AGRODOK_RWH_43-e-2006-small.pdf
United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2002) ‘The right to water’ Twenty-ninth session, Geneva, 11-29 November 2002, Agenda item 3. Available from: (http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/a5458d1d1bbd713fc1256cc400389e94/$FILE/G0340229.pdf, accessed 14 May 2010). http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/a5458d1d1bbd713fc1256cc400389e94/$FILE/G0340229.pdf
Ariyabandu, R. de S. (2003) Very-Low-Cost Domestic Roofwater Harvesting in the Humid Tropics: Its Role in Water Policy [online], Development Technology Unit, School of Engineering, University of Warwick. Available from: http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/dtu2/rwh/dfiddocs/r4.pdf [accessed 8 April 2010]. http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/dtu2/rwh/dfiddocs/r4.pdf
Davis, J., White, G., Damodaron, S. and Thorsten, R. (2008) ‘Improving access to water supply and sanitation in urban India: Microfinance for water and sanitation infrastructure development’, Water Science & Technology-WST 58: 4.
Merz, J., Nakarmi, G. and Weingartner, R. (2003) ‘Potential solutions to water scarcity in the rural watersheds of Nepal's middle mountains’, Mountain Research and Development 23 (Feb 2003): 14-18. Available from: www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1659/0276-4741(2003)023%5B0014:PSTWSI%5D2.0.CO%3B [accessed 26 February 2010]. www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1659/0276-4741(2003)023%5B0014:PSTWSI%5D2.0.CO%3B
Partners for Sustainable Development (2005) Rainwater Partnership [online], available from: http://webapps01.un.org/dsd/partnerships/public/partnerships/1385.html [accessed 11 April 2010]. http://webapps01.un.org/dsd/partnerships/public/partnerships/1385.html
RAIN Foundation (2008) RAIN Water Quality Guidelines [online], available from: www.rainfoundation.org/fileadmin/PublicSite/Manuals/RAIN_Rainwater_Quality_Policy_and_Guidelines_2009_v1.pdf [accessed 30 April 2010]. www.rainfoundation.org/fileadmin/PublicSite/Manuals/RAIN_Rainwater_Quality_Policy_and_Guidelines_2009_v1.pdf
Shrestha, G. (2001) Water Harvesting as an Appropriate Technology, The Global and Local Perspective [online], BS Thesis, Kathmandu University, Nepal. Available from: www.scribd.com/doc/27674886/Water-Harvesting-Thesis-Shortened-Final [accessed 26 February 2010]. www.scribd.com/doc/27674886/Water-Harvesting-Thesis-Shortened-Final
Smet, J. (2003) Domestic Rainwater Harvesting [online], WELL Factsheet. Available from: www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/fact-sheets/fact-sheets-htm/drh.htm [accessed 26 February 2010]. www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/fact-sheets/fact-sheets-htm/drh.htm
Van Steenbergen, F. and Tuinhof, A. (2009) Managing the Water Buffer for Development and Climate Change Adaptation: Groundwater recharge, retention, reuse and rainwater storage [online], Wageningen, The Netherlands: MetaMeta Communications. Available from: http://www.bebuffered.com/downloads/3Rbook_2nd_edition_webversion.pdf [accessed 11 April 2010]. http://www.bebuffered.com/downloads/3Rbook_2nd_edition_webversion.pdf
UNEP (1997) Source Book of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in Latin America and the Caribbean [online], Unit of Sustainable Development and Environment, General Secretariat, Organization of American States, Washington, DC. Available from: http://www.oas.org/osde/publications/unit/oea59e/begin.htm#Contents [accessed 08 April 2010]. http://www.oas.org/osde/publications/unit/oea59e/begin.htm#Contents
WHO (2010) ‘WHO Statistical Information System’ [online], available from: http://www.who.int/whosis/en/index.html [accessed 11 April 2010]. http://www.who.int/whosis/en/index.html
Worm, J. and van Hattum, T. (2006) Rainwater Harvesting for Domestic Use [online], Agrodok 43, Agromisa Foundation and CTA, Wageningen. Available from: www.rainfoundation.org/fileadmin/PublicSite/Manuals/AGRODOK_RWH_43-e-2006-small.pdf [accessed 26 February 2010]. www.rainfoundation.org/fileadmin/PublicSite/Manuals/AGRODOK_RWH_43-e-2006-small.pdf
United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2002) ‘The right to water’ Twenty-ninth session, Geneva, 11-29 November 2002, Agenda item 3. Available from: (http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/a5458d1d1bbd713fc1256cc400389e94/$FILE/G0340229.pdf, accessed 14 May 2010). http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/a5458d1d1bbd713fc1256cc400389e94/$FILE/G0340229.pdf
Ariyabandu, R. de S. (2003) Very-Low-Cost Domestic Roofwater Harvesting in the Humid Tropics: Its Role in Water Policy [online], Development Technology Unit, School of Engineering, University of Warwick. Available from: http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/dtu2/rwh/dfiddocs/r4.pdf [accessed 8 April 2010]. http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/dtu2/rwh/dfiddocs/r4.pdf
Davis, J., White, G., Damodaron, S. and Thorsten, R. (2008) ‘Improving access to water supply and sanitation in urban India: Microfinance for water and sanitation infrastructure development’, Water Science & Technology-WST 58: 4.
Merz, J., Nakarmi, G. and Weingartner, R. (2003) ‘Potential solutions to water scarcity in the rural watersheds of Nepal's middle mountains’, Mountain Research and Development 23 (Feb 2003): 14-18. Available from: www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1659/0276-4741(2003)023%5B0014:PSTWSI%5D2.0.CO%3B [accessed 26 February 2010]. www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1659/0276-4741(2003)023%5B0014:PSTWSI%5D2.0.CO%3B
Partners for Sustainable Development (2005) Rainwater Partnership [online], available from: http://webapps01.un.org/dsd/partnerships/public/partnerships/1385.html [accessed 11 April 2010]. http://webapps01.un.org/dsd/partnerships/public/partnerships/1385.html
RAIN Foundation (2008) RAIN Water Quality Guidelines [online], available from: www.rainfoundation.org/fileadmin/PublicSite/Manuals/RAIN_Rainwater_Quality_Policy_and_Guidelines_2009_v1.pdf [accessed 30 April 2010]. www.rainfoundation.org/fileadmin/PublicSite/Manuals/RAIN_Rainwater_Quality_Policy_and_Guidelines_2009_v1.pdf
Shrestha, G. (2001) Water Harvesting as an Appropriate Technology, The Global and Local Perspective [online], BS Thesis, Kathmandu University, Nepal. Available from: www.scribd.com/doc/27674886/Water-Harvesting-Thesis-Shortened-Final [accessed 26 February 2010]. www.scribd.com/doc/27674886/Water-Harvesting-Thesis-Shortened-Final
Smet, J. (2003) Domestic Rainwater Harvesting [online], WELL Factsheet. Available from: www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/fact-sheets/fact-sheets-htm/drh.htm [accessed 26 February 2010]. www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/fact-sheets/fact-sheets-htm/drh.htm
Van Steenbergen, F. and Tuinhof, A. (2009) Managing the Water Buffer for Development and Climate Change Adaptation: Groundwater recharge, retention, reuse and rainwater storage [online], Wageningen, The Netherlands: MetaMeta Communications. Available from: http://www.bebuffered.com/downloads/3Rbook_2nd_edition_webversion.pdf [accessed 11 April 2010]. http://www.bebuffered.com/downloads/3Rbook_2nd_edition_webversion.pdf
UNEP (1997) Source Book of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in Latin America and the Caribbean [online], Unit of Sustainable Development and Environment, General Secretariat, Organization of American States, Washington, DC. Available from: http://www.oas.org/osde/publications/unit/oea59e/begin.htm#Contents [accessed 08 April 2010]. http://www.oas.org/osde/publications/unit/oea59e/begin.htm#Contents
WHO (2010) ‘WHO Statistical Information System’ [online], available from: http://www.who.int/whosis/en/index.html [accessed 11 April 2010]. http://www.who.int/whosis/en/index.html
Worm, J. and van Hattum, T. (2006) Rainwater Harvesting for Domestic Use [online], Agrodok 43, Agromisa Foundation and CTA, Wageningen. Available from: www.rainfoundation.org/fileadmin/PublicSite/Manuals/AGRODOK_RWH_43-e-2006-small.pdf [accessed 26 February 2010]. www.rainfoundation.org/fileadmin/PublicSite/Manuals/AGRODOK_RWH_43-e-2006-small.pdf
United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2002) ‘The right to water’ Twenty-ninth session, Geneva, 11-29 November 2002, Agenda item 3. Available from: (http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/a5458d1d1bbd713fc1256cc400389e94/$FILE/G0340229.pdf, accessed 14 May 2010). http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/a5458d1d1bbd713fc1256cc400389e94/$FILE/G0340229.pdf
Ariyabandu, R. de S. (2003) Very-Low-Cost Domestic Roofwater Harvesting in the Humid Tropics: Its Role in Water Policy [online], Development Technology Unit, School of Engineering, University of Warwick. Available from: http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/dtu2/rwh/dfiddocs/r4.pdf [accessed 8 April 2010]. http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/dtu2/rwh/dfiddocs/r4.pdf
Davis, J., White, G., Damodaron, S. and Thorsten, R. (2008) ‘Improving access to water supply and sanitation in urban India: Microfinance for water and sanitation infrastructure development’, Water Science & Technology-WST 58: 4.
Merz, J., Nakarmi, G. and Weingartner, R. (2003) ‘Potential solutions to water scarcity in the rural watersheds of Nepal's middle mountains’, Mountain Research and Development 23 (Feb 2003): 14-18. Available from: www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1659/0276-4741(2003)023%5B0014:PSTWSI%5D2.0.CO%3B [accessed 26 February 2010]. www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1659/0276-4741(2003)023%5B0014:PSTWSI%5D2.0.CO%3B
Partners for Sustainable Development (2005) Rainwater Partnership [online], available from: http://webapps01.un.org/dsd/partnerships/public/partnerships/1385.html [accessed 11 April 2010]. http://webapps01.un.org/dsd/partnerships/public/partnerships/1385.html
RAIN Foundation (2008) RAIN Water Quality Guidelines [online], available from: www.rainfoundation.org/fileadmin/PublicSite/Manuals/RAIN_Rainwater_Quality_Policy_and_Guidelines_2009_v1.pdf [accessed 30 April 2010]. www.rainfoundation.org/fileadmin/PublicSite/Manuals/RAIN_Rainwater_Quality_Policy_and_Guidelines_2009_v1.pdf
Shrestha, G. (2001) Water Harvesting as an Appropriate Technology, The Global and Local Perspective [online], BS Thesis, Kathmandu University, Nepal. Available from: www.scribd.com/doc/27674886/Water-Harvesting-Thesis-Shortened-Final [accessed 26 February 2010]. www.scribd.com/doc/27674886/Water-Harvesting-Thesis-Shortened-Final
Smet, J. (2003) Domestic Rainwater Harvesting [online], WELL Factsheet. Available from: www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/fact-sheets/fact-sheets-htm/drh.htm [accessed 26 February 2010]. www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/fact-sheets/fact-sheets-htm/drh.htm
Van Steenbergen, F. and Tuinhof, A. (2009) Managing the Water Buffer for Development and Climate Change Adaptation: Groundwater recharge, retention, reuse and rainwater storage [online], Wageningen, The Netherlands: MetaMeta Communications. Available from: http://www.bebuffered.com/downloads/3Rbook_2nd_edition_webversion.pdf [accessed 11 April 2010]. http://www.bebuffered.com/downloads/3Rbook_2nd_edition_webversion.pdf
UNEP (1997) Source Book of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in Latin America and the Caribbean [online], Unit of Sustainable Development and Environment, General Secretariat, Organization of American States, Washington, DC. Available from: http://www.oas.org/osde/publications/unit/oea59e/begin.htm#Contents [accessed 08 April 2010]. http://www.oas.org/osde/publications/unit/oea59e/begin.htm#Contents
WHO (2010) ‘WHO Statistical Information System’ [online], available from: http://www.who.int/whosis/en/index.html [accessed 11 April 2010]. http://www.who.int/whosis/en/index.html
Worm, J. and van Hattum, T. (2006) Rainwater Harvesting for Domestic Use [online], Agrodok 43, Agromisa Foundation and CTA, Wageningen. Available from: www.rainfoundation.org/fileadmin/PublicSite/Manuals/AGRODOK_RWH_43-e-2006-small.pdf [accessed 26 February 2010]. www.rainfoundation.org/fileadmin/PublicSite/Manuals/AGRODOK_RWH_43-e-2006-small.pdf
United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2002) ‘The right to water’ Twenty-ninth session, Geneva, 11-29 November 2002, Agenda item 3. Available from: (http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/a5458d1d1bbd713fc1256cc400389e94/$FILE/G0340229.pdf, accessed 14 May 2010). http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/a5458d1d1bbd713fc1256cc400389e94/$FILE/G0340229.pdf
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