Alum is widely used in water treatment because of its many advantages, of which its relative low cost and worldwide availability have ensured it to be the coagulant of choice for emergency water treatment. However, in certain circumstances, its use may leave an undesirable coagulant aluminium residual in the finished water. Such residuals can generate (unwarranted) fear over the use of this useful coagulant (particularly among the misinformed). This article is focused on clarifying topics related to aluminium residuals, such as its occurrence, health risks, significance in emergency water treatment, measurement, and control strategies. These issues are discussed in view of the practical constraints faced in the field during emergencies and where appropriate contrasted with conventional (non-emergency) practice. Emergency water treatment sludge disposal and alternative coagulants to alum are also addressed.

ANZECC (2000) Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality - Volume 2, Chapter 8, Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC).

AWWA (American Water Works Association) (2006) Water Treatment Residuals Engineering, AWWA and AWWA Research Foundation, Denver, Colorado.

Baker, M.N. (1948) The Quest for Pure Water, Lancaster Press, Lancaster, PA.

Bérubé, D. (2004) ‘Speciation analysis and the occurrence of aluminum turbidity’, Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A 67(20-22): 1655-66 (doi: 10.1080/15287390490493457).

Bérubé, D. and Dorea, C.C. (2007) ‘Monitoring seasonal variations of drinking water residuals at a treatment plant using aluminium sulfate coagulation’, paper presented at: OWWA/OMWA Joint Annual Conference, Collingwood, Canada, 6-9 May 2007.

Bérubé, D. and Dorea, C.C. (2008) ‘Optimizing alum coagulation for turbidity, organics, and residual Al reductions’, Water Science & Technology: Water Supply 8(5): 505-11 (doi: 10.2166/ws.2008.090).

Clarke, B.A., Crompton, J.L. and Luff, R. (2004) ‘A physico-chemical water treatment system for relief agencies’, Water Management 157(4): 211-6 (doi: 10.1680/wama.157.4.211.56748).

Clements, C.J. and Griffiths, E. (2002) ‘The global impact of vaccines containing aluminium adjuvants’, Vaccine 20(S3): S24-33 (doi: 10.1016/S0264-410X(02)00168-8).

Cornwell, D.A. (1999) ‘Water treatment plant residual management’, in R.D. Letterman (ed.), Water Quality and Treatment: A Handbook of Community Water Supplies, 5th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 16.1-16.51.

Costello, J.J. (1984) ‘Postprecipitation in distribution systems’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 76(11): 46-9.

Dorea, C.C. (2007) ‘Simple improvements for emergency batch water treatment’, Waterlines 26(1): 17-9.

Dorea, C.C. (2009) ‘Coagulant-based emergency water treatment’, Desalination (in press).

Dorea, C.C. and Clarke, B.A. (2006) ‘Impacts of chemical pre-treatment on slow sand filtration’, in R. Gimbel, N.J.D. Graham and R. Collins (eds), Recent Progress in Slow Sand and Alternative Biofiltration Processes, IWA, London, pp. 215-23.

Dorea, C.C. and Clarke, B.A. (2008) ‘Effect of aluminium on microbial respiration’, Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 189(1-4): 353-8 (doi: 10.1007/s11270-007- 9553-3).

Driscoll, C.T. and Letterman, R.D. (1988) ‘Chemistry and fate of Al(III) in treated drinking water’, Journal of Environmental Engineering 114(1): 21-37.

Exley, C. and Birchall, D. (1992) ‘The cellular toxicity of aluminium’, Journal of Theoretical Biology 159(1): 83-98 (doi: 10.1016/S0022-5193(05)80769-6).

Flaten, T.P. (2001) ‘Aluminium as a risk factor in Alzheimer's disease, with emphasis on drinking water’, Brain Research Bulletin 55(2): 187-96 (doi: 10.1016/S0361-9230(01)00459-2).

Fredlund, B.G. (2005) The Performance of the Oxfam Upflow Clarifier in Response to the 2004 Tsunami in Aceh, Indonesia, MSc Dissertation, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK.

Gabelich, C.J., Yun, T.I., Coffey, B.M. and Suffet, I.H. (2002) ‘Effects of aluminum sulfate and ferric chloride coagulant residuals on polyamide membrane performance’, Desalination 150(1): 15-30 (doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2005.09.002).

Gardner, M.J. and Comber, S.D.W. (2003) ‘Aluminium speciation in effluents and receiving waters’, Journal of Environmental Monitoring 5: 902-5 (doi: 10.1039/b308409d).

Gensemer, R.W. and Playle, R.C. (1999) ‘The bioavailability and toxicity of aluminum in aquatic environments’, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 29(4): 315-450 (doi: 10.1080/10643389991259245).

Hoff, J.C. (1977) ‘The relationship of turbidity to disinfection of potable water’, paper presented at the Conference on the Evaluation of Microbiologic Standards for Drinking Water, USEPA, Office of Water Supply, Washington, DC.

Krewski, D., Yokel, R.A., Nieboer, E., Borchelt, D., Cohen, J., Harry, J., Kacew, S., Lindsay, J., Mahfouz, AM. and Rondeau, V. (2007) ‘Human health risk assessment for aluminium, aluminium oxide, and aluminium hydroxide’, Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B 10(Suppl. 1): 1-269 (doi: 10.1080/10937400701597766).

Letterman, R.D. and Pero, R.W. (1990) ‘Contaminants in polyelectrolytes used in water-treatment’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 82(11): 87-97.

Morris, J.K. and Knocke, W.R. (1984) ‘Temperature effects on the use of metalion coagulants for water treatment’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 76(3): 74-9.

Reiber, S., Kukull, W. and Standish-Lee, P. (1995) ‘Drinking water aluminium and bioavailability’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 87(5): 86-100.

Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (1995) 19th edn, American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation, Washington, DC.

The Sphere Project (2004) Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response, The Sphere Project, Oxfam Publishing, Oxford, UK.

Twort, A.C., Ratnayaka, D.D. and Brandt, M.J. (2000) Water Supply, 5th edn, Arnold Publishers, London.

van Benschoten, J.E. and Edzwald, J.K. (1990) ‘Measuring aluminum during water treatment: Methodology and application’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 82(5): 71-8.

van Benschoten, J.E., Jensen, J.N. and Rahman, M.A. (1994) ‘Effects of temperature and pH on residual aluminum in alkaline-treated waters’, Journal of Environmental Engineering 120(3): 543-59 (doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(1994)120:3(543)).

van den Noortgate, J. and Goessens, E. (2003) Assisted Direct Rapid Sand Filtration: Operators Manual, Médecins Sans Frontières, Paris.

Waring, S. and Brown, B. (2005) ‘The threat of communicable diseases following natural disasters: A public health response’, Disaster Management & Response 3(2): 41-7 (doi: 10.1016/j.dmr.2005.02.003).

WHO (World Health Organization) (1997) Environmental Health Criteria 194. Aluminium, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.

WHO (2006) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: Incorporating First Addendum. Vol. 1, Recommendations, 3rd edn, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.

Yokel, R.A. and Florence, R.L. (2008) ‘Aluminum bioavailability from tea infusion’, Food and Chemical Toxicology 46(12): 3659-63 (doi: 10.1016/ j.fct.2008.09.041).

Yokel, R.A., Rhineheimer, S.S., Brauer, R.D., Sharma, P., Elmore, D. and McNamara, P.J. (2001) ‘Aluminum bioavailability from drinking water is very low and is not appreciably influenced by stomach contents or water hardness’, Toxicology 161(1): 93-101 (doi: 10.1016/S0300-483X(01)00335-3).

ANZECC (2000) Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality - Volume 2, Chapter 8, Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC).

AWWA (American Water Works Association) (2006) Water Treatment Residuals Engineering, AWWA and AWWA Research Foundation, Denver, Colorado.

Baker, M.N. (1948) The Quest for Pure Water, Lancaster Press, Lancaster, PA.

Bérubé, D. (2004) ‘Speciation analysis and the occurrence of aluminum turbidity’, Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A 67(20-22): 1655-66 (doi: 10.1080/15287390490493457).

Bérubé, D. and Dorea, C.C. (2007) ‘Monitoring seasonal variations of drinking water residuals at a treatment plant using aluminium sulfate coagulation’, paper presented at: OWWA/OMWA Joint Annual Conference, Collingwood, Canada, 6-9 May 2007.

Bérubé, D. and Dorea, C.C. (2008) ‘Optimizing alum coagulation for turbidity, organics, and residual Al reductions’, Water Science & Technology: Water Supply 8(5): 505-11 (doi: 10.2166/ws.2008.090).

Clarke, B.A., Crompton, J.L. and Luff, R. (2004) ‘A physico-chemical water treatment system for relief agencies’, Water Management 157(4): 211-6 (doi: 10.1680/wama.157.4.211.56748).

Clements, C.J. and Griffiths, E. (2002) ‘The global impact of vaccines containing aluminium adjuvants’, Vaccine 20(S3): S24-33 (doi: 10.1016/S0264-410X(02)00168-8).

Cornwell, D.A. (1999) ‘Water treatment plant residual management’, in R.D. Letterman (ed.), Water Quality and Treatment: A Handbook of Community Water Supplies, 5th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 16.1-16.51.

Costello, J.J. (1984) ‘Postprecipitation in distribution systems’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 76(11): 46-9.

Dorea, C.C. (2007) ‘Simple improvements for emergency batch water treatment’, Waterlines 26(1): 17-9.

Dorea, C.C. (2009) ‘Coagulant-based emergency water treatment’, Desalination (in press).

Dorea, C.C. and Clarke, B.A. (2006) ‘Impacts of chemical pre-treatment on slow sand filtration’, in R. Gimbel, N.J.D. Graham and R. Collins (eds), Recent Progress in Slow Sand and Alternative Biofiltration Processes, IWA, London, pp. 215-23.

Dorea, C.C. and Clarke, B.A. (2008) ‘Effect of aluminium on microbial respiration’, Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 189(1-4): 353-8 (doi: 10.1007/s11270-007- 9553-3).

Driscoll, C.T. and Letterman, R.D. (1988) ‘Chemistry and fate of Al(III) in treated drinking water’, Journal of Environmental Engineering 114(1): 21-37.

Exley, C. and Birchall, D. (1992) ‘The cellular toxicity of aluminium’, Journal of Theoretical Biology 159(1): 83-98 (doi: 10.1016/S0022-5193(05)80769-6).

Flaten, T.P. (2001) ‘Aluminium as a risk factor in Alzheimer's disease, with emphasis on drinking water’, Brain Research Bulletin 55(2): 187-96 (doi: 10.1016/S0361-9230(01)00459-2).

Fredlund, B.G. (2005) The Performance of the Oxfam Upflow Clarifier in Response to the 2004 Tsunami in Aceh, Indonesia, MSc Dissertation, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK.

Gabelich, C.J., Yun, T.I., Coffey, B.M. and Suffet, I.H. (2002) ‘Effects of aluminum sulfate and ferric chloride coagulant residuals on polyamide membrane performance’, Desalination 150(1): 15-30 (doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2005.09.002).

Gardner, M.J. and Comber, S.D.W. (2003) ‘Aluminium speciation in effluents and receiving waters’, Journal of Environmental Monitoring 5: 902-5 (doi: 10.1039/b308409d).

Gensemer, R.W. and Playle, R.C. (1999) ‘The bioavailability and toxicity of aluminum in aquatic environments’, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 29(4): 315-450 (doi: 10.1080/10643389991259245).

Hoff, J.C. (1977) ‘The relationship of turbidity to disinfection of potable water’, paper presented at the Conference on the Evaluation of Microbiologic Standards for Drinking Water, USEPA, Office of Water Supply, Washington, DC.

Krewski, D., Yokel, R.A., Nieboer, E., Borchelt, D., Cohen, J., Harry, J., Kacew, S., Lindsay, J., Mahfouz, AM. and Rondeau, V. (2007) ‘Human health risk assessment for aluminium, aluminium oxide, and aluminium hydroxide’, Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B 10(Suppl. 1): 1-269 (doi: 10.1080/10937400701597766).

Letterman, R.D. and Pero, R.W. (1990) ‘Contaminants in polyelectrolytes used in water-treatment’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 82(11): 87-97.

Morris, J.K. and Knocke, W.R. (1984) ‘Temperature effects on the use of metalion coagulants for water treatment’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 76(3): 74-9.

Reiber, S., Kukull, W. and Standish-Lee, P. (1995) ‘Drinking water aluminium and bioavailability’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 87(5): 86-100.

Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (1995) 19th edn, American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation, Washington, DC.

The Sphere Project (2004) Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response, The Sphere Project, Oxfam Publishing, Oxford, UK.

Twort, A.C., Ratnayaka, D.D. and Brandt, M.J. (2000) Water Supply, 5th edn, Arnold Publishers, London.

van Benschoten, J.E. and Edzwald, J.K. (1990) ‘Measuring aluminum during water treatment: Methodology and application’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 82(5): 71-8.

van Benschoten, J.E., Jensen, J.N. and Rahman, M.A. (1994) ‘Effects of temperature and pH on residual aluminum in alkaline-treated waters’, Journal of Environmental Engineering 120(3): 543-59 (doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(1994)120:3(543)).

van den Noortgate, J. and Goessens, E. (2003) Assisted Direct Rapid Sand Filtration: Operators Manual, Médecins Sans Frontières, Paris.

Waring, S. and Brown, B. (2005) ‘The threat of communicable diseases following natural disasters: A public health response’, Disaster Management & Response 3(2): 41-7 (doi: 10.1016/j.dmr.2005.02.003).

WHO (World Health Organization) (1997) Environmental Health Criteria 194. Aluminium, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.

WHO (2006) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: Incorporating First Addendum. Vol. 1, Recommendations, 3rd edn, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.

Yokel, R.A. and Florence, R.L. (2008) ‘Aluminum bioavailability from tea infusion’, Food and Chemical Toxicology 46(12): 3659-63 (doi: 10.1016/ j.fct.2008.09.041).

Yokel, R.A., Rhineheimer, S.S., Brauer, R.D., Sharma, P., Elmore, D. and McNamara, P.J. (2001) ‘Aluminum bioavailability from drinking water is very low and is not appreciably influenced by stomach contents or water hardness’, Toxicology 161(1): 93-101 (doi: 10.1016/S0300-483X(01)00335-3).

ANZECC (2000) Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality - Volume 2, Chapter 8, Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC).

AWWA (American Water Works Association) (2006) Water Treatment Residuals Engineering, AWWA and AWWA Research Foundation, Denver, Colorado.

Baker, M.N. (1948) The Quest for Pure Water, Lancaster Press, Lancaster, PA.

Bérubé, D. (2004) ‘Speciation analysis and the occurrence of aluminum turbidity’, Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A 67(20-22): 1655-66 (doi: 10.1080/15287390490493457).

Bérubé, D. and Dorea, C.C. (2007) ‘Monitoring seasonal variations of drinking water residuals at a treatment plant using aluminium sulfate coagulation’, paper presented at: OWWA/OMWA Joint Annual Conference, Collingwood, Canada, 6-9 May 2007.

Bérubé, D. and Dorea, C.C. (2008) ‘Optimizing alum coagulation for turbidity, organics, and residual Al reductions’, Water Science & Technology: Water Supply 8(5): 505-11 (doi: 10.2166/ws.2008.090).

Clarke, B.A., Crompton, J.L. and Luff, R. (2004) ‘A physico-chemical water treatment system for relief agencies’, Water Management 157(4): 211-6 (doi: 10.1680/wama.157.4.211.56748).

Clements, C.J. and Griffiths, E. (2002) ‘The global impact of vaccines containing aluminium adjuvants’, Vaccine 20(S3): S24-33 (doi: 10.1016/S0264-410X(02)00168-8).

Cornwell, D.A. (1999) ‘Water treatment plant residual management’, in R.D. Letterman (ed.), Water Quality and Treatment: A Handbook of Community Water Supplies, 5th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 16.1-16.51.

Costello, J.J. (1984) ‘Postprecipitation in distribution systems’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 76(11): 46-9.

Dorea, C.C. (2007) ‘Simple improvements for emergency batch water treatment’, Waterlines 26(1): 17-9.

Dorea, C.C. (2009) ‘Coagulant-based emergency water treatment’, Desalination (in press).

Dorea, C.C. and Clarke, B.A. (2006) ‘Impacts of chemical pre-treatment on slow sand filtration’, in R. Gimbel, N.J.D. Graham and R. Collins (eds), Recent Progress in Slow Sand and Alternative Biofiltration Processes, IWA, London, pp. 215-23.

Dorea, C.C. and Clarke, B.A. (2008) ‘Effect of aluminium on microbial respiration’, Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 189(1-4): 353-8 (doi: 10.1007/s11270-007- 9553-3).

Driscoll, C.T. and Letterman, R.D. (1988) ‘Chemistry and fate of Al(III) in treated drinking water’, Journal of Environmental Engineering 114(1): 21-37.

Exley, C. and Birchall, D. (1992) ‘The cellular toxicity of aluminium’, Journal of Theoretical Biology 159(1): 83-98 (doi: 10.1016/S0022-5193(05)80769-6).

Flaten, T.P. (2001) ‘Aluminium as a risk factor in Alzheimer's disease, with emphasis on drinking water’, Brain Research Bulletin 55(2): 187-96 (doi: 10.1016/S0361-9230(01)00459-2).

Fredlund, B.G. (2005) The Performance of the Oxfam Upflow Clarifier in Response to the 2004 Tsunami in Aceh, Indonesia, MSc Dissertation, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK.

Gabelich, C.J., Yun, T.I., Coffey, B.M. and Suffet, I.H. (2002) ‘Effects of aluminum sulfate and ferric chloride coagulant residuals on polyamide membrane performance’, Desalination 150(1): 15-30 (doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2005.09.002).

Gardner, M.J. and Comber, S.D.W. (2003) ‘Aluminium speciation in effluents and receiving waters’, Journal of Environmental Monitoring 5: 902-5 (doi: 10.1039/b308409d).

Gensemer, R.W. and Playle, R.C. (1999) ‘The bioavailability and toxicity of aluminum in aquatic environments’, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 29(4): 315-450 (doi: 10.1080/10643389991259245).

Hoff, J.C. (1977) ‘The relationship of turbidity to disinfection of potable water’, paper presented at the Conference on the Evaluation of Microbiologic Standards for Drinking Water, USEPA, Office of Water Supply, Washington, DC.

Krewski, D., Yokel, R.A., Nieboer, E., Borchelt, D., Cohen, J., Harry, J., Kacew, S., Lindsay, J., Mahfouz, AM. and Rondeau, V. (2007) ‘Human health risk assessment for aluminium, aluminium oxide, and aluminium hydroxide’, Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B 10(Suppl. 1): 1-269 (doi: 10.1080/10937400701597766).

Letterman, R.D. and Pero, R.W. (1990) ‘Contaminants in polyelectrolytes used in water-treatment’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 82(11): 87-97.

Morris, J.K. and Knocke, W.R. (1984) ‘Temperature effects on the use of metalion coagulants for water treatment’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 76(3): 74-9.

Reiber, S., Kukull, W. and Standish-Lee, P. (1995) ‘Drinking water aluminium and bioavailability’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 87(5): 86-100.

Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (1995) 19th edn, American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation, Washington, DC.

The Sphere Project (2004) Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response, The Sphere Project, Oxfam Publishing, Oxford, UK.

Twort, A.C., Ratnayaka, D.D. and Brandt, M.J. (2000) Water Supply, 5th edn, Arnold Publishers, London.

van Benschoten, J.E. and Edzwald, J.K. (1990) ‘Measuring aluminum during water treatment: Methodology and application’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 82(5): 71-8.

van Benschoten, J.E., Jensen, J.N. and Rahman, M.A. (1994) ‘Effects of temperature and pH on residual aluminum in alkaline-treated waters’, Journal of Environmental Engineering 120(3): 543-59 (doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(1994)120:3(543)).

van den Noortgate, J. and Goessens, E. (2003) Assisted Direct Rapid Sand Filtration: Operators Manual, Médecins Sans Frontières, Paris.

Waring, S. and Brown, B. (2005) ‘The threat of communicable diseases following natural disasters: A public health response’, Disaster Management & Response 3(2): 41-7 (doi: 10.1016/j.dmr.2005.02.003).

WHO (World Health Organization) (1997) Environmental Health Criteria 194. Aluminium, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.

WHO (2006) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: Incorporating First Addendum. Vol. 1, Recommendations, 3rd edn, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.

Yokel, R.A. and Florence, R.L. (2008) ‘Aluminum bioavailability from tea infusion’, Food and Chemical Toxicology 46(12): 3659-63 (doi: 10.1016/ j.fct.2008.09.041).

Yokel, R.A., Rhineheimer, S.S., Brauer, R.D., Sharma, P., Elmore, D. and McNamara, P.J. (2001) ‘Aluminum bioavailability from drinking water is very low and is not appreciably influenced by stomach contents or water hardness’, Toxicology 161(1): 93-101 (doi: 10.1016/S0300-483X(01)00335-3).

ANZECC (2000) Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality - Volume 2, Chapter 8, Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC).

AWWA (American Water Works Association) (2006) Water Treatment Residuals Engineering, AWWA and AWWA Research Foundation, Denver, Colorado.

Baker, M.N. (1948) The Quest for Pure Water, Lancaster Press, Lancaster, PA.

Bérubé, D. (2004) ‘Speciation analysis and the occurrence of aluminum turbidity’, Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A 67(20-22): 1655-66 (doi: 10.1080/15287390490493457).

Bérubé, D. and Dorea, C.C. (2007) ‘Monitoring seasonal variations of drinking water residuals at a treatment plant using aluminium sulfate coagulation’, paper presented at: OWWA/OMWA Joint Annual Conference, Collingwood, Canada, 6-9 May 2007.

Bérubé, D. and Dorea, C.C. (2008) ‘Optimizing alum coagulation for turbidity, organics, and residual Al reductions’, Water Science & Technology: Water Supply 8(5): 505-11 (doi: 10.2166/ws.2008.090).

Clarke, B.A., Crompton, J.L. and Luff, R. (2004) ‘A physico-chemical water treatment system for relief agencies’, Water Management 157(4): 211-6 (doi: 10.1680/wama.157.4.211.56748).

Clements, C.J. and Griffiths, E. (2002) ‘The global impact of vaccines containing aluminium adjuvants’, Vaccine 20(S3): S24-33 (doi: 10.1016/S0264-410X(02)00168-8).

Cornwell, D.A. (1999) ‘Water treatment plant residual management’, in R.D. Letterman (ed.), Water Quality and Treatment: A Handbook of Community Water Supplies, 5th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 16.1-16.51.

Costello, J.J. (1984) ‘Postprecipitation in distribution systems’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 76(11): 46-9.

Dorea, C.C. (2007) ‘Simple improvements for emergency batch water treatment’, Waterlines 26(1): 17-9.

Dorea, C.C. (2009) ‘Coagulant-based emergency water treatment’, Desalination (in press).

Dorea, C.C. and Clarke, B.A. (2006) ‘Impacts of chemical pre-treatment on slow sand filtration’, in R. Gimbel, N.J.D. Graham and R. Collins (eds), Recent Progress in Slow Sand and Alternative Biofiltration Processes, IWA, London, pp. 215-23.

Dorea, C.C. and Clarke, B.A. (2008) ‘Effect of aluminium on microbial respiration’, Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 189(1-4): 353-8 (doi: 10.1007/s11270-007- 9553-3).

Driscoll, C.T. and Letterman, R.D. (1988) ‘Chemistry and fate of Al(III) in treated drinking water’, Journal of Environmental Engineering 114(1): 21-37.

Exley, C. and Birchall, D. (1992) ‘The cellular toxicity of aluminium’, Journal of Theoretical Biology 159(1): 83-98 (doi: 10.1016/S0022-5193(05)80769-6).

Flaten, T.P. (2001) ‘Aluminium as a risk factor in Alzheimer's disease, with emphasis on drinking water’, Brain Research Bulletin 55(2): 187-96 (doi: 10.1016/S0361-9230(01)00459-2).

Fredlund, B.G. (2005) The Performance of the Oxfam Upflow Clarifier in Response to the 2004 Tsunami in Aceh, Indonesia, MSc Dissertation, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK.

Gabelich, C.J., Yun, T.I., Coffey, B.M. and Suffet, I.H. (2002) ‘Effects of aluminum sulfate and ferric chloride coagulant residuals on polyamide membrane performance’, Desalination 150(1): 15-30 (doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2005.09.002).

Gardner, M.J. and Comber, S.D.W. (2003) ‘Aluminium speciation in effluents and receiving waters’, Journal of Environmental Monitoring 5: 902-5 (doi: 10.1039/b308409d).

Gensemer, R.W. and Playle, R.C. (1999) ‘The bioavailability and toxicity of aluminum in aquatic environments’, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 29(4): 315-450 (doi: 10.1080/10643389991259245).

Hoff, J.C. (1977) ‘The relationship of turbidity to disinfection of potable water’, paper presented at the Conference on the Evaluation of Microbiologic Standards for Drinking Water, USEPA, Office of Water Supply, Washington, DC.

Krewski, D., Yokel, R.A., Nieboer, E., Borchelt, D., Cohen, J., Harry, J., Kacew, S., Lindsay, J., Mahfouz, AM. and Rondeau, V. (2007) ‘Human health risk assessment for aluminium, aluminium oxide, and aluminium hydroxide’, Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B 10(Suppl. 1): 1-269 (doi: 10.1080/10937400701597766).

Letterman, R.D. and Pero, R.W. (1990) ‘Contaminants in polyelectrolytes used in water-treatment’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 82(11): 87-97.

Morris, J.K. and Knocke, W.R. (1984) ‘Temperature effects on the use of metalion coagulants for water treatment’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 76(3): 74-9.

Reiber, S., Kukull, W. and Standish-Lee, P. (1995) ‘Drinking water aluminium and bioavailability’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 87(5): 86-100.

Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (1995) 19th edn, American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation, Washington, DC.

The Sphere Project (2004) Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response, The Sphere Project, Oxfam Publishing, Oxford, UK.

Twort, A.C., Ratnayaka, D.D. and Brandt, M.J. (2000) Water Supply, 5th edn, Arnold Publishers, London.

van Benschoten, J.E. and Edzwald, J.K. (1990) ‘Measuring aluminum during water treatment: Methodology and application’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 82(5): 71-8.

van Benschoten, J.E., Jensen, J.N. and Rahman, M.A. (1994) ‘Effects of temperature and pH on residual aluminum in alkaline-treated waters’, Journal of Environmental Engineering 120(3): 543-59 (doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(1994)120:3(543)).

van den Noortgate, J. and Goessens, E. (2003) Assisted Direct Rapid Sand Filtration: Operators Manual, Médecins Sans Frontières, Paris.

Waring, S. and Brown, B. (2005) ‘The threat of communicable diseases following natural disasters: A public health response’, Disaster Management & Response 3(2): 41-7 (doi: 10.1016/j.dmr.2005.02.003).

WHO (World Health Organization) (1997) Environmental Health Criteria 194. Aluminium, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.

WHO (2006) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: Incorporating First Addendum. Vol. 1, Recommendations, 3rd edn, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.

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