Efforts to increase sanitation coverage in the developing world have largely concentrated on on-site sanitation. Rising population densities mean that the standard practice of relocating the latrine, once full, is not possible and the faecal sludge must be removed. Transfer stations are widely accepted as a possible addition to infrastructure, providing a facility for safe disposal of faecal sludge, but they rarely exist. Accra, Ghana, has been explored as a case study because of the widespread usage of underground holding tanks (UHTs) to store collected night-soil (waste collected from pan (bucket) latrines). The problems that remain in Accra, despite the presence of these tanks, provide valuable considerations for future developments of similar technologies elsewhere.

Bongi, S. and Morel, A. (2005) Understanding Small Scale Providers of Sanitation Services: A Case Study of Kibera, Water and Sanitation Program (WSP), Kenya.

Franceys, R., Pickford, J. and Reed, R. (1992) A Guide to the Development of Onsite Sanitation, World Health Organisation (WHO), Geneva.

GHK (2005) Decentralised Domestic Wastewater and Faecal Sludge Management in Bangladesh, GHK Consulting Ltd, London.

Gordon (1997) ‘Collection and disposal of nightsoil from nightsoil buckets: Case illustration from Accra, Ghana’, in M. Muller (ed.), The Collection of Household Excreta: The Operation of Services in Urban Low-income Neighbourhoods, WASTE, The Netherlands.

Government of Ghana (2007) Revised Environmental Sanitation Policy, Draft Final, Government of Ghana, Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Environment.

JMP (2006) Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: The Urban and Rural Challenge of the Decade, Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP), WHO/UNICEF, Geneva.

Macleod, N.A. (n.d.) ‘The provision of sustainable sanitation services to periurban and rural communities in the Ethekwini (Durban) municipality’ [Online] http://conference2005.ecosan.org/papers/macleod.pdf [accessed 23 August 2007]. http://conference2005.ecosan.org/papers/macleod.pdf

Muller, M.S. and Rijnsburger, J. (1994) MAPET: A Neighbourhood-based Pit Emptying Service with Locally Manufactured Handpump Equipment in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Manual Pit-latrine Emptying Project Final Report 1988-1992. WASTE Consultants, the Netherlands.

Schaub-Jones, D. (2005) Sanitation Partnerships: Beyond Storage: On-site Sanitation as an Urban System [online], Building Partnerships for Development, London. Available from: http://www.bpdws.org/bpd/web/d/doc_114.pdf?statsHandlerDone=1 [accessed 14 June 2007]. http://www.bpdws.org/bpd/web/d/doc_114.pdf?statsHandlerDone=1

Strauss, M. and Montangero, A. (2002) Faecal Sludge Management: Review of Practices, Problems and Inititatives (GHK DFID KAR R8056: Capacity Building for Effective Decentralised Wastewater Management) [online], SANDEC, Switzerland. Available from: http://www.eawag.ch/organisation/abteilungen/sandec/publikationen/publications_ewm/downloads_ewm/FS_management_GHK.pdf [accessed 13th June 2007]. http://www.eawag.ch/organisation/abteilungen/sandec/publikationen/publications_ewm/downloads_ewm/FS_management_GHK.pdf

Strauss, M., Kone, D. and Saywell, D. (2006) Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium and Workshop on Faecal Sludge Management (FSM) Policy, Dakar, Senegal, 9-12 May 2006.

Sugden, S. (2005) An Assessment of Mechanical Pit Emptying Services in Maputo, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), UK.

Trades Union Congress (Ghana) (TUC) (2004) Incomes in Ghana: Policy Discussion Paper [online], Trades Union Congress (Ghana), Accra. Available from: http://www.gpn.org/data/ghana/ghana-analysis.doc [accessed 15 August 2007]. http://www.gpn.org/data/ghana/ghana-analysis.doc

Vodounhessi, A. (2006) ‘Ghana: Financial and institutional challenges to make faecal sludge management an integrated part of the ecological sanitation approach’, in M. Snel and J. Smet (eds), The Value of Environmental Sanitation: Case Studies, Occasional paper series 42, IRC International Water and Sanitation Agency, Delft, the Netherlands.

Bongi, S. and Morel, A. (2005) Understanding Small Scale Providers of Sanitation Services: A Case Study of Kibera, Water and Sanitation Program (WSP), Kenya.

Franceys, R., Pickford, J. and Reed, R. (1992) A Guide to the Development of Onsite Sanitation, World Health Organisation (WHO), Geneva.

GHK (2005) Decentralised Domestic Wastewater and Faecal Sludge Management in Bangladesh, GHK Consulting Ltd, London.

Gordon (1997) ‘Collection and disposal of nightsoil from nightsoil buckets: Case illustration from Accra, Ghana’, in M. Muller (ed.), The Collection of Household Excreta: The Operation of Services in Urban Low-income Neighbourhoods, WASTE, The Netherlands.

Government of Ghana (2007) Revised Environmental Sanitation Policy, Draft Final, Government of Ghana, Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Environment.

JMP (2006) Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: The Urban and Rural Challenge of the Decade, Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP), WHO/UNICEF, Geneva.

Macleod, N.A. (n.d.) ‘The provision of sustainable sanitation services to periurban and rural communities in the Ethekwini (Durban) municipality’ [Online] http://conference2005.ecosan.org/papers/macleod.pdf [accessed 23 August 2007]. http://conference2005.ecosan.org/papers/macleod.pdf

Muller, M.S. and Rijnsburger, J. (1994) MAPET: A Neighbourhood-based Pit Emptying Service with Locally Manufactured Handpump Equipment in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Manual Pit-latrine Emptying Project Final Report 1988-1992. WASTE Consultants, the Netherlands.

Schaub-Jones, D. (2005) Sanitation Partnerships: Beyond Storage: On-site Sanitation as an Urban System [online], Building Partnerships for Development, London. Available from: http://www.bpdws.org/bpd/web/d/doc_114.pdf?statsHandlerDone=1 [accessed 14 June 2007]. http://www.bpdws.org/bpd/web/d/doc_114.pdf?statsHandlerDone=1

Strauss, M. and Montangero, A. (2002) Faecal Sludge Management: Review of Practices, Problems and Inititatives (GHK DFID KAR R8056: Capacity Building for Effective Decentralised Wastewater Management) [online], SANDEC, Switzerland. Available from: http://www.eawag.ch/organisation/abteilungen/sandec/publikationen/publications_ewm/downloads_ewm/FS_management_GHK.pdf [accessed 13th June 2007]. http://www.eawag.ch/organisation/abteilungen/sandec/publikationen/publications_ewm/downloads_ewm/FS_management_GHK.pdf

Strauss, M., Kone, D. and Saywell, D. (2006) Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium and Workshop on Faecal Sludge Management (FSM) Policy, Dakar, Senegal, 9-12 May 2006.

Sugden, S. (2005) An Assessment of Mechanical Pit Emptying Services in Maputo, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), UK.

Trades Union Congress (Ghana) (TUC) (2004) Incomes in Ghana: Policy Discussion Paper [online], Trades Union Congress (Ghana), Accra. Available from: http://www.gpn.org/data/ghana/ghana-analysis.doc [accessed 15 August 2007]. http://www.gpn.org/data/ghana/ghana-analysis.doc

Vodounhessi, A. (2006) ‘Ghana: Financial and institutional challenges to make faecal sludge management an integrated part of the ecological sanitation approach’, in M. Snel and J. Smet (eds), The Value of Environmental Sanitation: Case Studies, Occasional paper series 42, IRC International Water and Sanitation Agency, Delft, the Netherlands.

Bongi, S. and Morel, A. (2005) Understanding Small Scale Providers of Sanitation Services: A Case Study of Kibera, Water and Sanitation Program (WSP), Kenya.

Franceys, R., Pickford, J. and Reed, R. (1992) A Guide to the Development of Onsite Sanitation, World Health Organisation (WHO), Geneva.

GHK (2005) Decentralised Domestic Wastewater and Faecal Sludge Management in Bangladesh, GHK Consulting Ltd, London.

Gordon (1997) ‘Collection and disposal of nightsoil from nightsoil buckets: Case illustration from Accra, Ghana’, in M. Muller (ed.), The Collection of Household Excreta: The Operation of Services in Urban Low-income Neighbourhoods, WASTE, The Netherlands.

Government of Ghana (2007) Revised Environmental Sanitation Policy, Draft Final, Government of Ghana, Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Environment.

JMP (2006) Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: The Urban and Rural Challenge of the Decade, Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP), WHO/UNICEF, Geneva.

Macleod, N.A. (n.d.) ‘The provision of sustainable sanitation services to periurban and rural communities in the Ethekwini (Durban) municipality’ [Online] http://conference2005.ecosan.org/papers/macleod.pdf [accessed 23 August 2007]. http://conference2005.ecosan.org/papers/macleod.pdf

Muller, M.S. and Rijnsburger, J. (1994) MAPET: A Neighbourhood-based Pit Emptying Service with Locally Manufactured Handpump Equipment in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Manual Pit-latrine Emptying Project Final Report 1988-1992. WASTE Consultants, the Netherlands.

Schaub-Jones, D. (2005) Sanitation Partnerships: Beyond Storage: On-site Sanitation as an Urban System [online], Building Partnerships for Development, London. Available from: http://www.bpdws.org/bpd/web/d/doc_114.pdf?statsHandlerDone=1 [accessed 14 June 2007]. http://www.bpdws.org/bpd/web/d/doc_114.pdf?statsHandlerDone=1

Strauss, M. and Montangero, A. (2002) Faecal Sludge Management: Review of Practices, Problems and Inititatives (GHK DFID KAR R8056: Capacity Building for Effective Decentralised Wastewater Management) [online], SANDEC, Switzerland. Available from: http://www.eawag.ch/organisation/abteilungen/sandec/publikationen/publications_ewm/downloads_ewm/FS_management_GHK.pdf [accessed 13th June 2007]. http://www.eawag.ch/organisation/abteilungen/sandec/publikationen/publications_ewm/downloads_ewm/FS_management_GHK.pdf

Strauss, M., Kone, D. and Saywell, D. (2006) Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium and Workshop on Faecal Sludge Management (FSM) Policy, Dakar, Senegal, 9-12 May 2006.

Sugden, S. (2005) An Assessment of Mechanical Pit Emptying Services in Maputo, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), UK.

Trades Union Congress (Ghana) (TUC) (2004) Incomes in Ghana: Policy Discussion Paper [online], Trades Union Congress (Ghana), Accra. Available from: http://www.gpn.org/data/ghana/ghana-analysis.doc [accessed 15 August 2007]. http://www.gpn.org/data/ghana/ghana-analysis.doc

Vodounhessi, A. (2006) ‘Ghana: Financial and institutional challenges to make faecal sludge management an integrated part of the ecological sanitation approach’, in M. Snel and J. Smet (eds), The Value of Environmental Sanitation: Case Studies, Occasional paper series 42, IRC International Water and Sanitation Agency, Delft, the Netherlands.

Bongi, S. and Morel, A. (2005) Understanding Small Scale Providers of Sanitation Services: A Case Study of Kibera, Water and Sanitation Program (WSP), Kenya.

Franceys, R., Pickford, J. and Reed, R. (1992) A Guide to the Development of Onsite Sanitation, World Health Organisation (WHO), Geneva.

GHK (2005) Decentralised Domestic Wastewater and Faecal Sludge Management in Bangladesh, GHK Consulting Ltd, London.

Gordon (1997) ‘Collection and disposal of nightsoil from nightsoil buckets: Case illustration from Accra, Ghana’, in M. Muller (ed.), The Collection of Household Excreta: The Operation of Services in Urban Low-income Neighbourhoods, WASTE, The Netherlands.

Government of Ghana (2007) Revised Environmental Sanitation Policy, Draft Final, Government of Ghana, Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Environment.

JMP (2006) Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: The Urban and Rural Challenge of the Decade, Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP), WHO/UNICEF, Geneva.

Macleod, N.A. (n.d.) ‘The provision of sustainable sanitation services to periurban and rural communities in the Ethekwini (Durban) municipality’ [Online] http://conference2005.ecosan.org/papers/macleod.pdf [accessed 23 August 2007]. http://conference2005.ecosan.org/papers/macleod.pdf

Muller, M.S. and Rijnsburger, J. (1994) MAPET: A Neighbourhood-based Pit Emptying Service with Locally Manufactured Handpump Equipment in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Manual Pit-latrine Emptying Project Final Report 1988-1992. WASTE Consultants, the Netherlands.

Schaub-Jones, D. (2005) Sanitation Partnerships: Beyond Storage: On-site Sanitation as an Urban System [online], Building Partnerships for Development, London. Available from: http://www.bpdws.org/bpd/web/d/doc_114.pdf?statsHandlerDone=1 [accessed 14 June 2007]. http://www.bpdws.org/bpd/web/d/doc_114.pdf?statsHandlerDone=1

Strauss, M. and Montangero, A. (2002) Faecal Sludge Management: Review of Practices, Problems and Inititatives (GHK DFID KAR R8056: Capacity Building for Effective Decentralised Wastewater Management) [online], SANDEC, Switzerland. Available from: http://www.eawag.ch/organisation/abteilungen/sandec/publikationen/publications_ewm/downloads_ewm/FS_management_GHK.pdf [accessed 13th June 2007]. http://www.eawag.ch/organisation/abteilungen/sandec/publikationen/publications_ewm/downloads_ewm/FS_management_GHK.pdf

Strauss, M., Kone, D. and Saywell, D. (2006) Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium and Workshop on Faecal Sludge Management (FSM) Policy, Dakar, Senegal, 9-12 May 2006.

Sugden, S. (2005) An Assessment of Mechanical Pit Emptying Services in Maputo, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), UK.

Trades Union Congress (Ghana) (TUC) (2004) Incomes in Ghana: Policy Discussion Paper [online], Trades Union Congress (Ghana), Accra. Available from: http://www.gpn.org/data/ghana/ghana-analysis.doc [accessed 15 August 2007]. http://www.gpn.org/data/ghana/ghana-analysis.doc

Vodounhessi, A. (2006) ‘Ghana: Financial and institutional challenges to make faecal sludge management an integrated part of the ecological sanitation approach’, in M. Snel and J. Smet (eds), The Value of Environmental Sanitation: Case Studies, Occasional paper series 42, IRC International Water and Sanitation Agency, Delft, the Netherlands.