Providing adequate sanitation to people in rapidly growing cities, particularly those living in low-income areas, is one of the greatest development challenges of the 21st century. A number of conceptual approaches to meeting this challenge have been developed but these tend to assume conditions that rarely exist in practice. A more pragmatic approach is required, learning from what has and has not worked in the past.The paper assesses some well-known sanitation initiatives in order to establish what worked, what did not work and why. The main focus is on schemes in South Asia, involving low-cost sewerage. The analysis reveals problems with systems, not least in the coordination between different stakeholders. Further examination shows that on-site sanitation systems experience similar problems relating to the disposal of faecal wastes. The paper concludes that we need to pay renewed attention to the physical aspects of sanitation provision but within the context of an increased awareness of the importance of overall systems and recognition of the realities of conditions in the field.

Bakhteari, Q.A. and Wegelin-Schuringa (1992) From Sanitation to Development: The Case of the Baldia Soakpit Pilot Project, IRC Technical Paper No.31, IRC, Delft, The Netherlands.

Diacon, D. (1997) Slum Networking: An Innovative Approach to Urban Development, Building and Social Housing Foundation, Coalville, UK.

Easterly, W. (2006) The White Man's Burden, Why the West's Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

GHK (2005) Decentralised Domestic Wastewater and Faecal Sludge Management in Bangladesh, GHK, London.

Government of Pakistan (2006) National Sanitation Policy [online] available at http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/divisions/environmentdivision/media/Sanitation%20Policy.pdf [accessed 10 January 2008] http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/divisions/environmentdivision/media/Sanitation%20Policy.pdf

Hasan, A. (1997) Working with Government: The Story of OPP's Collaboration with State Agencies for Replicating its Low-Cost Sanitation Program, City Press, Karachi, Pakistan.

Muller, M.S. and Rijnsburger, J. (1994) ‘Mapet: An appropriate latrine-emptying technology’, Waterlines 13: 24-7.

Netherlands Water Partnership (2006) Smart Sanitation Solutions [online] available at http://www.ecosan.nl/content/download/945/6711/file/Smart%20Sanitation%20Solutions%20print.pdf [accessed 10 January 2008] http://www.ecosan.nl/content/download/945/6711/file/Smart%20Sanitation%20Solutions%20print.pdf

Saywell, D.L. and Cotton, A.P. (1997) On Plot Sanitation in Low Income Urban Communities: Guidelines for Selection, WEDC, Loughborough, UK.

Tayler, K. (2005) ‘Two participatory projects in South Asia’, Municipal Engineer 158: 37-43.

Verma, G.D. (nd) ‘Indore's slum project: A worms eye view from the ground’, UN-Habitat Best Practices Database in Improving the Living Environment [online] http://www.bestpractices.org/learning/casestudies/indore.pdf [accessed 10 January 2008] http://www.bestpractices.org/learning/casestudies/indore.pdf

Wright, A.M. (1997) Towards a Strategic Sanitation Approach: Improving the Sustainability of Urban Sanitation in Developing Countries, UNDP, World Bank Water and Sanitation Programme, Washington, DC.

Zaidi, A. (2001) From the Lane to the City: The Impact of the Orangi Pilot Project's Low Cost Sanitation Model, WaterAid, London.

Bakhteari, Q.A. and Wegelin-Schuringa (1992) From Sanitation to Development: The Case of the Baldia Soakpit Pilot Project, IRC Technical Paper No.31, IRC, Delft, The Netherlands.

Diacon, D. (1997) Slum Networking: An Innovative Approach to Urban Development, Building and Social Housing Foundation, Coalville, UK.

Easterly, W. (2006) The White Man's Burden, Why the West's Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

GHK (2005) Decentralised Domestic Wastewater and Faecal Sludge Management in Bangladesh, GHK, London.

Government of Pakistan (2006) National Sanitation Policy [online] available at http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/divisions/environmentdivision/media/Sanitation%20Policy.pdf [accessed 10 January 2008] http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/divisions/environmentdivision/media/Sanitation%20Policy.pdf

Hasan, A. (1997) Working with Government: The Story of OPP's Collaboration with State Agencies for Replicating its Low-Cost Sanitation Program, City Press, Karachi, Pakistan.

Muller, M.S. and Rijnsburger, J. (1994) ‘Mapet: An appropriate latrine-emptying technology’, Waterlines 13: 24-7.

Netherlands Water Partnership (2006) Smart Sanitation Solutions [online] available at http://www.ecosan.nl/content/download/945/6711/file/Smart%20Sanitation%20Solutions%20print.pdf [accessed 10 January 2008] http://www.ecosan.nl/content/download/945/6711/file/Smart%20Sanitation%20Solutions%20print.pdf

Saywell, D.L. and Cotton, A.P. (1997) On Plot Sanitation in Low Income Urban Communities: Guidelines for Selection, WEDC, Loughborough, UK.

Tayler, K. (2005) ‘Two participatory projects in South Asia’, Municipal Engineer 158: 37-43.

Verma, G.D. (nd) ‘Indore's slum project: A worms eye view from the ground’, UN-Habitat Best Practices Database in Improving the Living Environment [online] http://www.bestpractices.org/learning/casestudies/indore.pdf [accessed 10 January 2008] http://www.bestpractices.org/learning/casestudies/indore.pdf

Wright, A.M. (1997) Towards a Strategic Sanitation Approach: Improving the Sustainability of Urban Sanitation in Developing Countries, UNDP, World Bank Water and Sanitation Programme, Washington, DC.

Zaidi, A. (2001) From the Lane to the City: The Impact of the Orangi Pilot Project's Low Cost Sanitation Model, WaterAid, London.

Bakhteari, Q.A. and Wegelin-Schuringa (1992) From Sanitation to Development: The Case of the Baldia Soakpit Pilot Project, IRC Technical Paper No.31, IRC, Delft, The Netherlands.

Diacon, D. (1997) Slum Networking: An Innovative Approach to Urban Development, Building and Social Housing Foundation, Coalville, UK.

Easterly, W. (2006) The White Man's Burden, Why the West's Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

GHK (2005) Decentralised Domestic Wastewater and Faecal Sludge Management in Bangladesh, GHK, London.

Government of Pakistan (2006) National Sanitation Policy [online] available at http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/divisions/environmentdivision/media/Sanitation%20Policy.pdf [accessed 10 January 2008] http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/divisions/environmentdivision/media/Sanitation%20Policy.pdf

Hasan, A. (1997) Working with Government: The Story of OPP's Collaboration with State Agencies for Replicating its Low-Cost Sanitation Program, City Press, Karachi, Pakistan.

Muller, M.S. and Rijnsburger, J. (1994) ‘Mapet: An appropriate latrine-emptying technology’, Waterlines 13: 24-7.

Netherlands Water Partnership (2006) Smart Sanitation Solutions [online] available at http://www.ecosan.nl/content/download/945/6711/file/Smart%20Sanitation%20Solutions%20print.pdf [accessed 10 January 2008] http://www.ecosan.nl/content/download/945/6711/file/Smart%20Sanitation%20Solutions%20print.pdf

Saywell, D.L. and Cotton, A.P. (1997) On Plot Sanitation in Low Income Urban Communities: Guidelines for Selection, WEDC, Loughborough, UK.

Tayler, K. (2005) ‘Two participatory projects in South Asia’, Municipal Engineer 158: 37-43.

Verma, G.D. (nd) ‘Indore's slum project: A worms eye view from the ground’, UN-Habitat Best Practices Database in Improving the Living Environment [online] http://www.bestpractices.org/learning/casestudies/indore.pdf [accessed 10 January 2008] http://www.bestpractices.org/learning/casestudies/indore.pdf

Wright, A.M. (1997) Towards a Strategic Sanitation Approach: Improving the Sustainability of Urban Sanitation in Developing Countries, UNDP, World Bank Water and Sanitation Programme, Washington, DC.

Zaidi, A. (2001) From the Lane to the City: The Impact of the Orangi Pilot Project's Low Cost Sanitation Model, WaterAid, London.

Bakhteari, Q.A. and Wegelin-Schuringa (1992) From Sanitation to Development: The Case of the Baldia Soakpit Pilot Project, IRC Technical Paper No.31, IRC, Delft, The Netherlands.

Diacon, D. (1997) Slum Networking: An Innovative Approach to Urban Development, Building and Social Housing Foundation, Coalville, UK.

Easterly, W. (2006) The White Man's Burden, Why the West's Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

GHK (2005) Decentralised Domestic Wastewater and Faecal Sludge Management in Bangladesh, GHK, London.

Government of Pakistan (2006) National Sanitation Policy [online] available at http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/divisions/environmentdivision/media/Sanitation%20Policy.pdf [accessed 10 January 2008] http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/divisions/environmentdivision/media/Sanitation%20Policy.pdf

Hasan, A. (1997) Working with Government: The Story of OPP's Collaboration with State Agencies for Replicating its Low-Cost Sanitation Program, City Press, Karachi, Pakistan.

Muller, M.S. and Rijnsburger, J. (1994) ‘Mapet: An appropriate latrine-emptying technology’, Waterlines 13: 24-7.

Netherlands Water Partnership (2006) Smart Sanitation Solutions [online] available at http://www.ecosan.nl/content/download/945/6711/file/Smart%20Sanitation%20Solutions%20print.pdf [accessed 10 January 2008] http://www.ecosan.nl/content/download/945/6711/file/Smart%20Sanitation%20Solutions%20print.pdf

Saywell, D.L. and Cotton, A.P. (1997) On Plot Sanitation in Low Income Urban Communities: Guidelines for Selection, WEDC, Loughborough, UK.

Tayler, K. (2005) ‘Two participatory projects in South Asia’, Municipal Engineer 158: 37-43.

Verma, G.D. (nd) ‘Indore's slum project: A worms eye view from the ground’, UN-Habitat Best Practices Database in Improving the Living Environment [online] http://www.bestpractices.org/learning/casestudies/indore.pdf [accessed 10 January 2008] http://www.bestpractices.org/learning/casestudies/indore.pdf

Wright, A.M. (1997) Towards a Strategic Sanitation Approach: Improving the Sustainability of Urban Sanitation in Developing Countries, UNDP, World Bank Water and Sanitation Programme, Washington, DC.

Zaidi, A. (2001) From the Lane to the City: The Impact of the Orangi Pilot Project's Low Cost Sanitation Model, WaterAid, London.