Self-supply systems are privately owned household-based water sources that generally serve people beyond the asset owners. The system’s yielding safe water is crucial to achieving provision of safe water for all. This paper identifies the peculiarities and major management constraints to self-supply hand-dug wells in a developing nation context through collation of research-driven evidence and analysis of English language publications of peer-reviewed scientific literature. Information was also derived from reports and concept notes that are specifically related to self-supply water systems in low-income regions. A number of issues were identified such as poor construction of water wells, water quality concerns, and the influence of religious belief. The identified constraints were appraised through the application of the Swiss cheese risk analysis approach. The paper classifies the key failure causes, identifies possible water safety recovery routes, and discusses alternative pathways to water safety planning for self-supply sources, with implications and recommendations for relevant stakeholders.

Carter, R. (2006) Investigating Options for Self-Help Water Supply: From Field Research to Pilot Interventions in Uganda [online], Nairobi, Kenya; St Gallen, Switzerland: WSP, RWSN <https://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/261> [accessed 14 December 2019].

Carter, R., Mpalanyi, J. and Ssebalu, J. (2005) Self-Help Initiatives to Improve Water Supplies in Eastern and Central Uganda, with an Emphasis on Shallow Groundwater. A Case Study of the RWSN Self-Supply Flagship: Final Report [online], Kampala, Uganda: WSP/RWSN/WaterAid <https://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/274> [accessed 14 December 2019].

Curtis, V. (2001) ‘Hygiene: how myths, monsters and mothers-in-laws can promote behaviour change’, Journal of Infection 43: 75–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/jinf.2001.0862>.

Curtis, V. (2003) ‘Talking dirty: how to save a million lives’, International Journal of Environmental Health Research 13: S73–79 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0960312031000102822>.

Davison, A., Howard, G., Stevens, M., Callan, P., Fewtrell, L., Deere, D. and Bartram, J. (2005) Water Safety Plans: Managing Drinking-Water Quality From Catchment to Consumer, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.

Foster, S. (2008) ‘Urban water supply security in sub-Saharan Africa: making best use of groundwater’, Session 5, International Conference of Groundwater and Climate in Africa, 24–28 June 2008, Kampala, Uganda <http://www.worldbank.org/gwmate> [accessed 06 November 2009].

Government of British Columbia (GBC) (2019) Best Practices for Dug Wells [pdf] <https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/air-land-water/water/water-wells/best_practices_for_dug_wells.pdf> [accessed 18 May 2019].

Howard, G., Pedley, S., Barrett, M., Nalubega, M. and Johal, K. (2003) ‘Risk factors contributing to microbiological contamination of shallow groundwater in Kampala, Uganda’, Water Research 37: 3421–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(03)00235-5>.

Idowu, O.A. and Mafiana, C.F. (2007) ‘Malaria in pregnancy: knowledge, attitude and practices of pregnant women in Abeokuta, Nigeria’, The Nigerian Journal of Parasitology 28(2): 61–4 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/njpar.v28i2.37868>.

Institution of Occupational Safety and Health (IOSH) (2004) ‘Promoting a positive culture’, in S. Pollard, D. Trafield, B. MacGillivvary, R. Bradshaw, S.E. Hrudey, and J. Charrols (2006) ‘Risk management culture for water utilities’, AwwaRF workshop, Banff Centre, 13–15 December 2006, Alberta, Canada, pp. 1–14.

Jaeger, A.M. and Kanungo, R.A. (1990) Management in Developing Countries, London: Routledge.

JMP (2017) Progress on Drinking-Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Update and SDG Baselines, Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF).

Kim, K.N., Rajmohan, H.J., Kim, G.S. and Hwang, Cho M.J. (2004) ‘Assessment of groundwater chemistry in a coastal region (Kunsan, Korea) having complex contaminant sources: a stoichiometric approach’, Environmental Geology 46(6-7): 763–74 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00254-004-1109-x>.

Liddle, E.S., Mager, S.M. and Nel, E. (2014) ‘Water quality awareness and barriers to safe water provisioning in informal communities: a case study from Ndola, Zambia’, in C.M. Rogerson and D. Szymańska (eds), Bulletin of Geography, Socio-economic Series, No. 26, pp. 167–81, Toruń, Poland: Nicolaus Copernicus University <http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/bog-2014-0052>.

Millennium Water Alliance (MWA) (2018a) ‘Self-supply enables community resilience’ [online] <https://mwawater.org/programs/ethiopia-news/> [accessed February 2019].

MWA (2018b) End-Line Evaluation for the Millennium Water Alliance, Ethiopia Programme Self-Supply Acceleration pilot [pdf], Addis Ababa: IRC Ethiopia <https://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/mwa-ssapilot-briefingnote2018.pdf> [accessed 14 December 2019].

Morgan, P.R. (1997) ‘Small steps count: building on traditional methods for rural water supply’, Waterlines 15(3): 2–5.

Morgan, P. (2003) ‘Zimbabwe’s upgraded family well programme’, paper for World Water Forum, 16–23 March, 2003, Kyoto [online] <https://www.rural-water-supply.net/_ressources/documents/default/1-755-2-1536054652.PDF> [accessed 14 December 2019].

Murcott, S. (2007) ‘Water and Sanitation Infrastructure in Developing Countries’ [online], MIT OpenCourseWare 11.479 J/1.851J <https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/urban-studies-and-planning/11-479j-water-and-sanitation-infrastructure-in-developing-countries-spring-2007/> [accessed 18 March 2008].

National Malaria Control Programme (NMCP) and ICF (2018) Malawi Malaria Indicator Survey 2017, Lilongwe, Malawi: NMCP; Rockville, MD: ICF.

Oke, S.A. and Tijani, M.N. (2012) ‘Impact of chemical weathering on groundwater chemistry of Abeokuta area, SW-Nigeria’, Elixir International Journal, Elixir Pollution 46: 8498–503.

Oluwasanya, G. (2009) Better Safe than Sorry: Towards Appropriate Water Safety Plans for Urban Self-Supply Systems, PhD thesis, Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, UK.

Oluwasanya, G. (2013a) ‘Qualitative risk assessment of self-supply hand-dug wells in Abeokuta, Nigeria: a water safety plan approach’, Waterlines 32(1): 36–49 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2013.004>.

Oluwasanya, G. (2013b) ‘Perception of water users to health impacts: implications for urban self-supply water safety plans’, Journal of Natural Sciences, Engineering and Technology 12: 62–75.

Oluwasanya, G. and Carter, R. (2013) ‘Management of urban self-supply wells in Abeokuta, Nigeria: an assessment and redefinition of roles for water safety planning’, Nigerian Journal of Hydrological Sciences (NJHS) 2: 85–109.

Oluwasanya, G. and Carter, R. (2017) ‘Water safety planning for small water supply systems: the framework and control measures’, Journal of Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 17(6): 1524–33 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2017.057>.

Oluwasanya, G., Smith, J. and Carter, R. (2011) ‘Self-supply systems: urban dug wells in Abeokuta, Nigeria’, Journal of Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 11(2): 172–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2011.026>.

Oluwasanya, G.O., Sadiq, A.Y. and Odjegba, E.E. (2016) ‘Inventory and sanitary status of self-supply systems in Abeokuta, Nigeria’, Nigerian Journal of Hydrological Sciences (NJHS) 4: 215–36.

Orebiyi, E.O., Awomeso, J.A., Idowu, O.A., Martins, O., Oguntoke, O. and Taiwo, A.M. (2010) ‘Assessment of pollution hazards of shallow well water in Abeokuta and environs, Southwest, Nigeria’, American Journal of Environmental Sciences 6(1): 50–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3844/ajessp.2010.50.56>.

Pedley, S. and Howard, G. (1997) ‘The public health implications of microbiological contamination of groundwater’, Journal of Engineering Geology 30: 179–88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/GSL.QJEGH.1997.030.P2.10>.

Percival, S.L., Chalmers, R.M., Embrey, M., Hunter, P.R., Sellwood, J. and Wyn-Jones, P. (2004) Microbiology of Waterborne Diseases, London: Elsevier.

Perneger, T.V. (2005) ‘The Swiss cheese model of safety incidents: are there holes in the metaphor’? BMC Health Services Research 5: 71 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472-6963-5-71>.

Reason, J. (1997) Managing the Risks of Organizational Accidents, Brookfield, VT: Ashgate Publishing.

Reason, J. (2000) ‘Human error: models and management’, British Medical Journal 320: 768–70 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.320.7237.768>.

Schmoll, O., Howard, G., Chilton, J. and Chorus, I. (2006) Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality of Drinking-Water Sources, 1st edn, London: IWA.

Sievers, D. and Kelly, G. (2016) Market-based Approaches to Sanitation: A Review of the Evidence [online], Washington, DC: Population Services International (PSI) <https://www.psi.org/publication/market-based-approaches-to-sanitation/> [accessed 4 June 2019].

Srinivasamoorthy, K., Nanthakumar, C., Vasanthavigar, M., Vijayarag havan, K., Rajivgan, dhi R., Chidambaram, S., Anandhan, P., Manivannan, R. and Vasudevan, S. (2009) ‘Groundwater quality assessment from a hard rock terrain, Salem district of Tamilnadu, India’, Arabian Journal of Geoscience <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12517-009-0076-7>.

Sutton, S. (2004a) Self Supply: A Fresh Approach to Water for Rural Populations, Field Note, November 2004, Nairobi, Kenya: Water and Sanitation Program - African Region (WSP/RWSN/DFID).

Sutton, S. (2004b) Preliminary Desk Study of Potential For Self-Supply in Sub-Saharan Africa [pdf], Report for WaterAid and the Rural Water Supply Network, October 2004, SWL Consultants, UK <https://www.rural-water-supply.net/_ressources/documents/default/264.pdf> [accessed 14 December 2019].

Sutton, S., Butterworth, J. and Mekonta, L. (2012) A Hidden Resource: Household-Led Rural Water Supply in Ethiopia, Netherlands: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre.

UN (2015) ‘Sustainable Development Goals: Knowledge Platforms’ [online] <https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/> [accessed 05 June 2019].

UNEP (2003) Technology Transfer: The Seven ‘C’s for the Successful Transfer and Uptake of Environmentally Sound Technologies, Osaka, Japan: International Environmental Technology Centre, United Nations Environment Programme.

Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) and Government of Sierra Leone (GSL) (2014) Technical Guidelines for the Construction and Maintenance of Hand-Dug Wells [pdf], Official Guidelines of the Government of Sierra Leone <https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/WSP-Technical-Guidelines-Construction-of-Wells-Sierra-Leone.pdf> [accessed 18 May 2019].

WHO (2004a) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, 3rd edn, Vol. 1, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.

WHO (2004b) A Strategic Framework for Malaria Prevention and Control During Pregnancy in the African Region, AFR/MAL/04/01, Brazzaville: WHO Regional Office for Africa.

WHO (2011) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, 4th edn, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.

WHO (2012) Pharmaceuticals in Drinking-Water [online], Geneva, Switzerland: Water Sanitation and Health Publications, WHO Press <https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2012/pharmaceuticals/en/> [accessed 13 December 2019].

WHO (2017) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, Incorporating the 1st Addendum, 4th edn [online] <https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/drinking-water-quality-guidelines-4-including-1st-addendum/en/> [accessed 06 December 2018].

WHO/UNICEF (2010) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-Water: 2010 Update, Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO); New York: UNICEF.

Workneh, P., Deverill, P. and Woldeselassie, A. (2009) ‘Developing low-cost household supply options: the potential of self-supply in Ethiopia’, paper presented at Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Sustainable Development and Multisectoral Approaches, 34th WEDC International Conference, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Carter, R. (2006) Investigating Options for Self-Help Water Supply: From Field Research to Pilot Interventions in Uganda [online], Nairobi, Kenya; St Gallen, Switzerland: WSP, RWSN <https://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/261> [accessed 14 December 2019].

Carter, R., Mpalanyi, J. and Ssebalu, J. (2005) Self-Help Initiatives to Improve Water Supplies in Eastern and Central Uganda, with an Emphasis on Shallow Groundwater. A Case Study of the RWSN Self-Supply Flagship: Final Report [online], Kampala, Uganda: WSP/RWSN/WaterAid <https://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/274> [accessed 14 December 2019].

Curtis, V. (2001) ‘Hygiene: how myths, monsters and mothers-in-laws can promote behaviour change’, Journal of Infection 43: 75–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/jinf.2001.0862>.

Curtis, V. (2003) ‘Talking dirty: how to save a million lives’, International Journal of Environmental Health Research 13: S73–79 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0960312031000102822>.

Davison, A., Howard, G., Stevens, M., Callan, P., Fewtrell, L., Deere, D. and Bartram, J. (2005) Water Safety Plans: Managing Drinking-Water Quality From Catchment to Consumer, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.

Foster, S. (2008) ‘Urban water supply security in sub-Saharan Africa: making best use of groundwater’, Session 5, International Conference of Groundwater and Climate in Africa, 24–28 June 2008, Kampala, Uganda <http://www.worldbank.org/gwmate> [accessed 06 November 2009].

Government of British Columbia (GBC) (2019) Best Practices for Dug Wells [pdf] <https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/air-land-water/water/water-wells/best_practices_for_dug_wells.pdf> [accessed 18 May 2019].

Howard, G., Pedley, S., Barrett, M., Nalubega, M. and Johal, K. (2003) ‘Risk factors contributing to microbiological contamination of shallow groundwater in Kampala, Uganda’, Water Research 37: 3421–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(03)00235-5>.

Idowu, O.A. and Mafiana, C.F. (2007) ‘Malaria in pregnancy: knowledge, attitude and practices of pregnant women in Abeokuta, Nigeria’, The Nigerian Journal of Parasitology 28(2): 61–4 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/njpar.v28i2.37868>.

Institution of Occupational Safety and Health (IOSH) (2004) ‘Promoting a positive culture’, in S. Pollard, D. Trafield, B. MacGillivvary, R. Bradshaw, S.E. Hrudey, and J. Charrols (2006) ‘Risk management culture for water utilities’, AwwaRF workshop, Banff Centre, 13–15 December 2006, Alberta, Canada, pp. 1–14.

Jaeger, A.M. and Kanungo, R.A. (1990) Management in Developing Countries, London: Routledge.

JMP (2017) Progress on Drinking-Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Update and SDG Baselines, Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF).

Kim, K.N., Rajmohan, H.J., Kim, G.S. and Hwang, Cho M.J. (2004) ‘Assessment of groundwater chemistry in a coastal region (Kunsan, Korea) having complex contaminant sources: a stoichiometric approach’, Environmental Geology 46(6-7): 763–74 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00254-004-1109-x>.

Liddle, E.S., Mager, S.M. and Nel, E. (2014) ‘Water quality awareness and barriers to safe water provisioning in informal communities: a case study from Ndola, Zambia’, in C.M. Rogerson and D. Szymańska (eds), Bulletin of Geography, Socio-economic Series, No. 26, pp. 167–81, Toruń, Poland: Nicolaus Copernicus University <http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/bog-2014-0052>.

Millennium Water Alliance (MWA) (2018a) ‘Self-supply enables community resilience’ [online] <https://mwawater.org/programs/ethiopia-news/> [accessed February 2019].

MWA (2018b) End-Line Evaluation for the Millennium Water Alliance, Ethiopia Programme Self-Supply Acceleration pilot [pdf], Addis Ababa: IRC Ethiopia <https://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/mwa-ssapilot-briefingnote2018.pdf> [accessed 14 December 2019].

Morgan, P.R. (1997) ‘Small steps count: building on traditional methods for rural water supply’, Waterlines 15(3): 2–5.

Morgan, P. (2003) ‘Zimbabwe’s upgraded family well programme’, paper for World Water Forum, 16–23 March, 2003, Kyoto [online] <https://www.rural-water-supply.net/_ressources/documents/default/1-755-2-1536054652.PDF> [accessed 14 December 2019].

Murcott, S. (2007) ‘Water and Sanitation Infrastructure in Developing Countries’ [online], MIT OpenCourseWare 11.479 J/1.851J <https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/urban-studies-and-planning/11-479j-water-and-sanitation-infrastructure-in-developing-countries-spring-2007/> [accessed 18 March 2008].

National Malaria Control Programme (NMCP) and ICF (2018) Malawi Malaria Indicator Survey 2017, Lilongwe, Malawi: NMCP; Rockville, MD: ICF.

Oke, S.A. and Tijani, M.N. (2012) ‘Impact of chemical weathering on groundwater chemistry of Abeokuta area, SW-Nigeria’, Elixir International Journal, Elixir Pollution 46: 8498–503.

Oluwasanya, G. (2009) Better Safe than Sorry: Towards Appropriate Water Safety Plans for Urban Self-Supply Systems, PhD thesis, Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, UK.

Oluwasanya, G. (2013a) ‘Qualitative risk assessment of self-supply hand-dug wells in Abeokuta, Nigeria: a water safety plan approach’, Waterlines 32(1): 36–49 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2013.004>.

Oluwasanya, G. (2013b) ‘Perception of water users to health impacts: implications for urban self-supply water safety plans’, Journal of Natural Sciences, Engineering and Technology 12: 62–75.

Oluwasanya, G. and Carter, R. (2013) ‘Management of urban self-supply wells in Abeokuta, Nigeria: an assessment and redefinition of roles for water safety planning’, Nigerian Journal of Hydrological Sciences (NJHS) 2: 85–109.

Oluwasanya, G. and Carter, R. (2017) ‘Water safety planning for small water supply systems: the framework and control measures’, Journal of Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 17(6): 1524–33 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2017.057>.

Oluwasanya, G., Smith, J. and Carter, R. (2011) ‘Self-supply systems: urban dug wells in Abeokuta, Nigeria’, Journal of Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 11(2): 172–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2011.026>.

Oluwasanya, G.O., Sadiq, A.Y. and Odjegba, E.E. (2016) ‘Inventory and sanitary status of self-supply systems in Abeokuta, Nigeria’, Nigerian Journal of Hydrological Sciences (NJHS) 4: 215–36.

Orebiyi, E.O., Awomeso, J.A., Idowu, O.A., Martins, O., Oguntoke, O. and Taiwo, A.M. (2010) ‘Assessment of pollution hazards of shallow well water in Abeokuta and environs, Southwest, Nigeria’, American Journal of Environmental Sciences 6(1): 50–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3844/ajessp.2010.50.56>.

Pedley, S. and Howard, G. (1997) ‘The public health implications of microbiological contamination of groundwater’, Journal of Engineering Geology 30: 179–88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/GSL.QJEGH.1997.030.P2.10>.

Percival, S.L., Chalmers, R.M., Embrey, M., Hunter, P.R., Sellwood, J. and Wyn-Jones, P. (2004) Microbiology of Waterborne Diseases, London: Elsevier.

Perneger, T.V. (2005) ‘The Swiss cheese model of safety incidents: are there holes in the metaphor’? BMC Health Services Research 5: 71 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472-6963-5-71>.

Reason, J. (1997) Managing the Risks of Organizational Accidents, Brookfield, VT: Ashgate Publishing.

Reason, J. (2000) ‘Human error: models and management’, British Medical Journal 320: 768–70 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.320.7237.768>.

Schmoll, O., Howard, G., Chilton, J. and Chorus, I. (2006) Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality of Drinking-Water Sources, 1st edn, London: IWA.

Sievers, D. and Kelly, G. (2016) Market-based Approaches to Sanitation: A Review of the Evidence [online], Washington, DC: Population Services International (PSI) <https://www.psi.org/publication/market-based-approaches-to-sanitation/> [accessed 4 June 2019].

Srinivasamoorthy, K., Nanthakumar, C., Vasanthavigar, M., Vijayarag havan, K., Rajivgan, dhi R., Chidambaram, S., Anandhan, P., Manivannan, R. and Vasudevan, S. (2009) ‘Groundwater quality assessment from a hard rock terrain, Salem district of Tamilnadu, India’, Arabian Journal of Geoscience <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12517-009-0076-7>.

Sutton, S. (2004a) Self Supply: A Fresh Approach to Water for Rural Populations, Field Note, November 2004, Nairobi, Kenya: Water and Sanitation Program - African Region (WSP/RWSN/DFID).

Sutton, S. (2004b) Preliminary Desk Study of Potential For Self-Supply in Sub-Saharan Africa [pdf], Report for WaterAid and the Rural Water Supply Network, October 2004, SWL Consultants, UK <https://www.rural-water-supply.net/_ressources/documents/default/264.pdf> [accessed 14 December 2019].

Sutton, S., Butterworth, J. and Mekonta, L. (2012) A Hidden Resource: Household-Led Rural Water Supply in Ethiopia, Netherlands: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre.

UN (2015) ‘Sustainable Development Goals: Knowledge Platforms’ [online] <https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/> [accessed 05 June 2019].

UNEP (2003) Technology Transfer: The Seven ‘C’s for the Successful Transfer and Uptake of Environmentally Sound Technologies, Osaka, Japan: International Environmental Technology Centre, United Nations Environment Programme.

Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) and Government of Sierra Leone (GSL) (2014) Technical Guidelines for the Construction and Maintenance of Hand-Dug Wells [pdf], Official Guidelines of the Government of Sierra Leone <https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/WSP-Technical-Guidelines-Construction-of-Wells-Sierra-Leone.pdf> [accessed 18 May 2019].

WHO (2004a) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, 3rd edn, Vol. 1, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.

WHO (2004b) A Strategic Framework for Malaria Prevention and Control During Pregnancy in the African Region, AFR/MAL/04/01, Brazzaville: WHO Regional Office for Africa.

WHO (2011) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, 4th edn, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.

WHO (2012) Pharmaceuticals in Drinking-Water [online], Geneva, Switzerland: Water Sanitation and Health Publications, WHO Press <https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2012/pharmaceuticals/en/> [accessed 13 December 2019].

WHO (2017) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, Incorporating the 1st Addendum, 4th edn [online] <https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/drinking-water-quality-guidelines-4-including-1st-addendum/en/> [accessed 06 December 2018].

WHO/UNICEF (2010) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-Water: 2010 Update, Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO); New York: UNICEF.

Workneh, P., Deverill, P. and Woldeselassie, A. (2009) ‘Developing low-cost household supply options: the potential of self-supply in Ethiopia’, paper presented at Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Sustainable Development and Multisectoral Approaches, 34th WEDC International Conference, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Carter, R. (2006) Investigating Options for Self-Help Water Supply: From Field Research to Pilot Interventions in Uganda [online], Nairobi, Kenya; St Gallen, Switzerland: WSP, RWSN <https://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/261> [accessed 14 December 2019].

Carter, R., Mpalanyi, J. and Ssebalu, J. (2005) Self-Help Initiatives to Improve Water Supplies in Eastern and Central Uganda, with an Emphasis on Shallow Groundwater. A Case Study of the RWSN Self-Supply Flagship: Final Report [online], Kampala, Uganda: WSP/RWSN/WaterAid <https://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/274> [accessed 14 December 2019].

Curtis, V. (2001) ‘Hygiene: how myths, monsters and mothers-in-laws can promote behaviour change’, Journal of Infection 43: 75–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/jinf.2001.0862>.

Curtis, V. (2003) ‘Talking dirty: how to save a million lives’, International Journal of Environmental Health Research 13: S73–79 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0960312031000102822>.

Davison, A., Howard, G., Stevens, M., Callan, P., Fewtrell, L., Deere, D. and Bartram, J. (2005) Water Safety Plans: Managing Drinking-Water Quality From Catchment to Consumer, Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.

Foster, S. (2008) ‘Urban water supply security in sub-Saharan Africa: making best use of groundwater’, Session 5, International Conference of Groundwater and Climate in Africa, 24–28 June 2008, Kampala, Uganda <http://www.worldbank.org/gwmate> [accessed 06 November 2009].

Government of British Columbia (GBC) (2019) Best Practices for Dug Wells [pdf] <https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/air-land-water/water/water-wells/best_practices_for_dug_wells.pdf> [accessed 18 May 2019].

Howard, G., Pedley, S., Barrett, M., Nalubega, M. and Johal, K. (2003) ‘Risk factors contributing to microbiological contamination of shallow groundwater in Kampala, Uganda’, Water Research 37: 3421–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(03)00235-5>.

Idowu, O.A. and Mafiana, C.F. (2007) ‘Malaria in pregnancy: knowledge, attitude and practices of pregnant women in Abeokuta, Nigeria’, The Nigerian Journal of Parasitology 28(2): 61–4 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/njpar.v28i2.37868>.

Institution of Occupational Safety and Health (IOSH) (2004) ‘Promoting a positive culture’, in S. Pollard, D. Trafield, B. MacGillivvary, R. Bradshaw, S.E. Hrudey, and J. Charrols (2006) ‘Risk management culture for water utilities’, AwwaRF workshop, Banff Centre, 13–15 December 2006, Alberta, Canada, pp. 1–14.

Jaeger, A.M. and Kanungo, R.A. (1990) Management in Developing Countries, London: Routledge.

JMP (2017) Progress on Drinking-Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Update and SDG Baselines, Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF).

Kim, K.N., Rajmohan, H.J., Kim, G.S. and Hwang, Cho M.J. (2004) ‘Assessment of groundwater chemistry in a coastal region (Kunsan, Korea) having complex contaminant sources: a stoichiometric approach’, Environmental Geology 46(6-7): 763–74 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00254-004-1109-x>.

Liddle, E.S., Mager, S.M. and Nel, E. (2014) ‘Water quality awareness and barriers to safe water provisioning in informal communities: a case study from Ndola, Zambia’, in C.M. Rogerson and D. Szymańska (eds), Bulletin of Geography, Socio-economic Series, No. 26, pp. 167–81, Toruń, Poland: Nicolaus Copernicus University <http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/bog-2014-0052>.

Millennium Water Alliance (MWA) (2018a) ‘Self-supply enables community resilience’ [online] <https://mwawater.org/programs/ethiopia-news/> [accessed February 2019].

MWA (2018b) End-Line Evaluation for the Millennium Water Alliance, Ethiopia Programme Self-Supply Acceleration pilot [pdf], Addis Ababa: IRC Ethiopia <https://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/mwa-ssapilot-briefingnote2018.pdf> [accessed 14 December 2019].

Morgan, P.R. (1997) ‘Small steps count: building on traditional methods for rural water supply’, Waterlines 15(3): 2–5.

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