The objective of the research was to test the relationship between restrictions and menstrual health and hygiene management (MHHM). A total of 2,212 adolescents in the structured questionnaire and 309 adolescent girls in the focus group discussions (FGDs) were selected using stratified random sampling in three districts of Uttar Pradesh. Overall, 96 per cent of the adolescent girls mentioned they faced some restriction in the structured questionnaire. Factors affecting adequate preparation of clean absorbent included having food restrictions and not having personal and structural restrictions. Factors affecting adequate storage of clean absorbent included not having social/religious restrictions and having structural restrictions. Factors affecting adequate frequency of changing included not having personal restrictions. Factors affecting adequate disposal included not having structural restrictions. The FGDs and structured questionnaire demonstrated that restrictions were ubiquitous, and adolescent girls followed restrictions because of personal and social beliefs, including considering menstruation impure. There was a blurry distinction between personal and social restrictions and most FGDs could not articulate actions to overcome social restrictions. These results highlight that restrictions matter and have a relationship with adequate MHHM. There is a need to combat restrictions using multifaceted approaches by designing programmes that are context specific.

Altheide, D.L. (1999) ‘What is a structural barrier?’ [online], Arizona State University <http://www.public.asu.edu/~atdla/womenandminorities/tsld003.htm> [accessed 5 October 2019].

Arumugam, B., Nagalingam, S., Varman, P., Ravi, P. and Ganesan, R. (2014) ‘Menstrual hygiene practices: is it practically impractical?’ International Journal of Medicine and Public Health 4: 472–6 <https://doi.org/10.4103/2230-8598.144120>.

Bhattacherjee, S., Ray, K., Biswas, R. and Chakraborty, M. (2013) ‘Menstruation: experiences of adolescent slum dwelling girls of Siliguri City, West Bengal, India’, Journal of Basic and Clinical Reproductive Sciences 2: 85 <https://doi.org/10.4103/2278-960X.118646>.

Bobel, C. (2019) The Managed Body: Developing Girls and Menstrual Health in the Global South, Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.

Chothe, V., Khubchandani, J., Seabert, D., Asalkar, M., Rakshe, S., Firke, A., Midha, I. and Simmons, R. (2014) ‘Students’ perceptions and doubts about menstruation in developing countries: a case study from India’, Health Promotion Practice 15: 319–26 <https://doi.org/10.1177/1524839914525175>.

Cialdini, R.B., Reno, R.R. and Kallgren, C.A. (1990) ‘A focus theory of normative conduct: recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58: 1015–26 <https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.6.1015>.

Das, P., Baker, K.K., Dutta, A., Swain, T., Sahoo, S., Das, B.S., Panda, B., Nayak, A., Bara, M., Bilung, B., Mishra, P.R., Panigrahi, P., Cairncross, S. and Torondel, B. (2015) ‘Menstrual hygiene practices, WASH access and the risk of urogenital infection in women from Odisha, India’, PLoS One 10: e0130777 <https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0130777>.

Dasgupta, A. and Sarkar, M. (2008) ‘Menstrual hygiene: how hygienic is the adolescent girl?’ Indian Journal of Community Medicine 33: 77–80 <https://doi.org/10.4103%2F0970-0218.40872>.

Farage, M.A., Miller, K.W. and Davis, A. (2011) ‘Cultural aspects of menstruation and menstrual hygiene in adolescents’, Expert Review of Obstetrics & Gynecology 6: 127–39 <https://doi.org/10.1586/eog.11.1>.

Garg, R., Shobha, G. and Gupta, S. (2012) ‘India moves towards menstrual hygiene: subsidized sanitary napkins for rural adolescent girls – issues and challenges’, Maternal and Child Health Journal 16: 767–74 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-011-0798-5>.

Garg, S. and Anand, T. (2015) ‘Menstruation related myths in India: strategies for combating it’, Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 4: 184–6 <https://doi.org/10.4103%2F2249-4863.154627>.

Jain, A., Aswar, N.R., Domple, V.K., Doibale, M.K. and Barure, B.S. (2014) ‘Menstrual hygiene awareness among rural unmarried girls’, Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences 3: 1413–9 <https://doi.org/10.14260/jemds/2014/2000>.

Juyal, R., Kandpal, S. and Semwal, J. (2013) ‘Social aspects of menstruation related practices in adolescent girls of district Dehradun’, Indian Journal of Community Health 25: 213–6.

Kaundal, M. and Thakur, B. (2014) ‘A dialogue on menstrual taboo’, Indian Journal of Community Health 26: 192–5.

Khanna, A. (2005) ‘Menstrual practices and reproductive problems: a study of adolescent girls in Rajasthan’, Journal of Health Management 7: 91–107 <https://doi.org/10.1177/097206340400700103>.

Kumar, A. and Srivastava, K. (2011) ‘Cultural and social practices regarding menstruation among adolescent girls’, Social Work in Public Health 26: 594–604 <https://doi.org/10.1080/19371918.2010.525144>.

Latkin, C., Weeks, M.R., Glasman, L., Galletly, C. and Albarracin, D. (2010) ‘A dynamic social systems model for considering structural factors in HIV prevention and detection’, AIDS and Behavior 14: 222–38 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-010-9804-y>.

Lavrakas, P.J. (2011a) ‘Interrater reliability’, in Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications: 361.

Lavrakas, P.J. (2011b) ‘Computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI)’, in Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications: 118–122.

Mackie, G., Moneti, F., Shakya, H. and Denny, E. (2015) What are Social Norms? How are they measured? [pdf], UNICEF/University of California <http://www.unicef.org/protection/files/4_09_30_Whole_What_are_Social_Norms.pdf> [accessed 5 October 2019].

Mahon, T. and Fernandes, M. (2010) ‘Menstrual hygiene in South Asia: a neglected issue for WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) programmes’, Gender & Development 18: 99–113 <https://doi.org/10.1080/13552071003600083>.

Mann, J.M. (1996) ‘Health and human rights’, BMJ 312: 924–5 <https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.312.7036.924>.

Mehta, S., Khatuja, R., Nigam, S., Gupta, K. and Goel, N. (2013) ‘Menstrual hygiene: a “red alert” situation’, European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 170: 577–8 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2013.06.046>.

Misra, P., Upadhyay, R.P., Sharma, V., Anand, K. and Gupta, V. (2013) ‘A community-based study of menstrual hygiene practices and willingness to pay for sanitary napkins among women of a rural community in northern India’, National Medical Journal of India 26: 335–7.

Montano, D. and Kasprzyk, D. (2008) ‘Theory of reasoned action, theory of planned behavior, and the integrated behavioral model’, in K. Glanz, B.K. Rimer, and K. Viswanath (eds.), Health Behavior and Health Education, p. 74, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Narayan, K., Srinivasa, D., Pelto, P. and Veerammal, S. (2001) ‘Puberty rituals, reproductive knowledge and health of adolescent schoolgirls in South India’, Asia-Pacific Population Journal 16: 225–38 <https://doi.org/10.18356/65d467c6-en>.

Paria, B., Bhattacharyya, A. and Das, S. (2014) ‘A comparative study on menstrual hygiene among urban and rural adolescent girls of west Bengal’, Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 3: 413–7 <https://doi.org/10.4103%2F2249-4863.148131>.

Patle, R. and Kubde, S. (2014) ‘Comparative study on menstrual hygiene in rural and urban adolescent’, International Journal of Medical Science and Public Health 3: 129–32 <https://doi.org/10.5455/ijmsph.2013.161020133>.

Posner, J., Kayastha, P., Davis, D., Limoges, J., O’Donnell, C. and Yue, K. (2009) ‘Development of leadership self-efficacy and collective efficacy: adolescent girls across castes as peer educators in Nepal’, Global Public Health 4: 284–302 <https://doi.org/10.1080/17441690902783157>.

Ramaiya, A. (2018) ‘Time of the Month’: A Mixed-Method Study to Understand and Improve Menstrual Health and Hygiene Management in Rural North India, Philadelphia, PA: Drexel University.

Sahoo, K.C., Hulland, K.R.S., Caruso, B.A., Swain, R., Freeman, M.C., Panigrahi, P. and Dreibelbis, R. (2015) ‘Sanitation-related psychosocial stress: a grounded theory study of women across the life-course in Odisha, India’, Social Science & Medicine 139: 80–9 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.06.031>.

Sallis, J.F., Owen, N. and Fisher, E.B. (2008) ‘Ecological models of health behavior’, in K. Glanz, B.K. Rimer, and K. Viswanath (eds.), Health Behavior and Health Education, pp. 466–85, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Schwartz, S. (1973) ‘Normative explanations of helping behavior: a critique, proposal, and empirical test’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 9: 349–64.

Shah, S.P., Nair, R., Shah, P.P., Modi, D.K., Desai, S.A. and Desai, L. (2013) ‘Improving quality of life with new menstrual hygiene practices among adolescent tribal girls in rural Gujarat, India’, Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters 21: 205–13 <https://doi.org/10.1016/S0968-8080(13)41691-9>.

Shankaraiah, R., Haveri, S., Mallappa, K. and Saheb, W. (2013) ‘Menstrual practices among adolescent girls in rural area’, International Journal of Child and Adolescent Health 6: 305–9.

Shridevi, K. and Padma, K. (2013) ‘A cross sectional study on menstrual hygiene among adolescent girls in urban health center field practice area of a medical college in west godavari district, Andhra Pradesh’, Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences 2: 6394–401.

Sommer, M., Ferron, S., Cavill, S. and House, S. (2015a) ‘Violence, gender and WASH: spurring action on a complex, under-documented and sensitive topic’, Environment & Urbanization 27: 105–16 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247814564528>.

Sommer, M., Sutherland, C. and Chandra-Mouli, V. (2015b) ‘Putting menarche and girls into the global population health agenda’, Reproductive Health 12: 10–12 <https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-015-0009-8>.

Sumpter, C. and Torondel, B. (2013) ‘A systematic review of the health and social effects of menstrual hygiene management’, PLoS One 8(4): e62004 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062004>.

Thakre, S.B., Thakre, S.S., Reddy, M., Rathi, N., Pathak, K. and Ughade, S. (2011) ‘Menstrual hygiene: knowledge and practice among adolescent school girls of Saoner, Nagpur District’, Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research 5: 1027–33.

Thakur, H., Aronsson, A., Bansode, S., Stalsby Lundborg, C., Dalvie, S. and Faxelid, E. (2014) ‘Knowledge, practices, and restrictions related to menstruation among young women from low socioeconomic community in Mumbai, India’, Frontiers in Public Health 2: 72 <https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2014.00072>.

UNICEF (2015) A Communication Framework: Menstrual Management, New Delhi, India.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2015) ‘Post-2015 sustainable development agenda’ [online] <http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/mdgoverview/post-2015-development-agenda.html> [accessed 5 October 2019].

van Eijk, A.M., Sivakami, M., Thakkar, M.B., Bauman, A., Laserson, K.F., Coates, S. and Phillips-Howard, P.A. (2016) ‘Menstrual hygiene management among adolescent girls in India: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, BMJ Open 6: e010290 <https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010290>.

Varghese, M., Ravichandran, L. and Anandhan, A.K. (2015) ‘Knowledge and practice of menstrual hygiene among school going adolescents’, Indian Journal of Youth and Adolescent Health 3: 35–43.

Verma, P., Ahmed, S. and Srivastava, R. (2013) ‘Knowledge and practices about menstrual hygiene among higher secondary school girls’, Indian Journal of Community Health 25: 265–71.

Winkler, I.T. (2019) ‘Human rights shine a light on unmet menstrual health needs and menstruation at the margins’, Obstetrics & Gynecology 133: 235–7 <https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000003098>.

Yagnik, A.S. (2012) ‘Construction of negative images of menstruation in Indian TV commercials’, Health Care for Women International 33: 756–71 <https://doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2012.684814>.

Yagnik, A.S. (2014) ‘Reframing menstruation in India: metamorphosis of the menstrual taboo with the changing media coverage’, Health Care for Women International 35: 617–33 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2013.838246>.

Altheide, D.L. (1999) ‘What is a structural barrier?’ [online], Arizona State University <http://www.public.asu.edu/~atdla/womenandminorities/tsld003.htm> [accessed 5 October 2019].

Arumugam, B., Nagalingam, S., Varman, P., Ravi, P. and Ganesan, R. (2014) ‘Menstrual hygiene practices: is it practically impractical?’ International Journal of Medicine and Public Health 4: 472–6 <https://doi.org/10.4103/2230-8598.144120>.

Bhattacherjee, S., Ray, K., Biswas, R. and Chakraborty, M. (2013) ‘Menstruation: experiences of adolescent slum dwelling girls of Siliguri City, West Bengal, India’, Journal of Basic and Clinical Reproductive Sciences 2: 85 <https://doi.org/10.4103/2278-960X.118646>.

Bobel, C. (2019) The Managed Body: Developing Girls and Menstrual Health in the Global South, Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.

Chothe, V., Khubchandani, J., Seabert, D., Asalkar, M., Rakshe, S., Firke, A., Midha, I. and Simmons, R. (2014) ‘Students’ perceptions and doubts about menstruation in developing countries: a case study from India’, Health Promotion Practice 15: 319–26 <https://doi.org/10.1177/1524839914525175>.

Cialdini, R.B., Reno, R.R. and Kallgren, C.A. (1990) ‘A focus theory of normative conduct: recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58: 1015–26 <https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.6.1015>.

Das, P., Baker, K.K., Dutta, A., Swain, T., Sahoo, S., Das, B.S., Panda, B., Nayak, A., Bara, M., Bilung, B., Mishra, P.R., Panigrahi, P., Cairncross, S. and Torondel, B. (2015) ‘Menstrual hygiene practices, WASH access and the risk of urogenital infection in women from Odisha, India’, PLoS One 10: e0130777 <https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0130777>.

Dasgupta, A. and Sarkar, M. (2008) ‘Menstrual hygiene: how hygienic is the adolescent girl?’ Indian Journal of Community Medicine 33: 77–80 <https://doi.org/10.4103%2F0970-0218.40872>.

Farage, M.A., Miller, K.W. and Davis, A. (2011) ‘Cultural aspects of menstruation and menstrual hygiene in adolescents’, Expert Review of Obstetrics & Gynecology 6: 127–39 <https://doi.org/10.1586/eog.11.1>.

Garg, R., Shobha, G. and Gupta, S. (2012) ‘India moves towards menstrual hygiene: subsidized sanitary napkins for rural adolescent girls – issues and challenges’, Maternal and Child Health Journal 16: 767–74 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-011-0798-5>.

Garg, S. and Anand, T. (2015) ‘Menstruation related myths in India: strategies for combating it’, Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 4: 184–6 <https://doi.org/10.4103%2F2249-4863.154627>.

Jain, A., Aswar, N.R., Domple, V.K., Doibale, M.K. and Barure, B.S. (2014) ‘Menstrual hygiene awareness among rural unmarried girls’, Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences 3: 1413–9 <https://doi.org/10.14260/jemds/2014/2000>.

Juyal, R., Kandpal, S. and Semwal, J. (2013) ‘Social aspects of menstruation related practices in adolescent girls of district Dehradun’, Indian Journal of Community Health 25: 213–6.

Kaundal, M. and Thakur, B. (2014) ‘A dialogue on menstrual taboo’, Indian Journal of Community Health 26: 192–5.

Khanna, A. (2005) ‘Menstrual practices and reproductive problems: a study of adolescent girls in Rajasthan’, Journal of Health Management 7: 91–107 <https://doi.org/10.1177/097206340400700103>.

Kumar, A. and Srivastava, K. (2011) ‘Cultural and social practices regarding menstruation among adolescent girls’, Social Work in Public Health 26: 594–604 <https://doi.org/10.1080/19371918.2010.525144>.

Latkin, C., Weeks, M.R., Glasman, L., Galletly, C. and Albarracin, D. (2010) ‘A dynamic social systems model for considering structural factors in HIV prevention and detection’, AIDS and Behavior 14: 222–38 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-010-9804-y>.

Lavrakas, P.J. (2011a) ‘Interrater reliability’, in Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications: 361.

Lavrakas, P.J. (2011b) ‘Computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI)’, in Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications: 118–122.

Mackie, G., Moneti, F., Shakya, H. and Denny, E. (2015) What are Social Norms? How are they measured? [pdf], UNICEF/University of California <http://www.unicef.org/protection/files/4_09_30_Whole_What_are_Social_Norms.pdf> [accessed 5 October 2019].

Mahon, T. and Fernandes, M. (2010) ‘Menstrual hygiene in South Asia: a neglected issue for WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) programmes’, Gender & Development 18: 99–113 <https://doi.org/10.1080/13552071003600083>.

Mann, J.M. (1996) ‘Health and human rights’, BMJ 312: 924–5 <https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.312.7036.924>.

Mehta, S., Khatuja, R., Nigam, S., Gupta, K. and Goel, N. (2013) ‘Menstrual hygiene: a “red alert” situation’, European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 170: 577–8 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2013.06.046>.

Misra, P., Upadhyay, R.P., Sharma, V., Anand, K. and Gupta, V. (2013) ‘A community-based study of menstrual hygiene practices and willingness to pay for sanitary napkins among women of a rural community in northern India’, National Medical Journal of India 26: 335–7.

Montano, D. and Kasprzyk, D. (2008) ‘Theory of reasoned action, theory of planned behavior, and the integrated behavioral model’, in K. Glanz, B.K. Rimer, and K. Viswanath (eds.), Health Behavior and Health Education, p. 74, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Narayan, K., Srinivasa, D., Pelto, P. and Veerammal, S. (2001) ‘Puberty rituals, reproductive knowledge and health of adolescent schoolgirls in South India’, Asia-Pacific Population Journal 16: 225–38 <https://doi.org/10.18356/65d467c6-en>.

Paria, B., Bhattacharyya, A. and Das, S. (2014) ‘A comparative study on menstrual hygiene among urban and rural adolescent girls of west Bengal’, Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 3: 413–7 <https://doi.org/10.4103%2F2249-4863.148131>.

Patle, R. and Kubde, S. (2014) ‘Comparative study on menstrual hygiene in rural and urban adolescent’, International Journal of Medical Science and Public Health 3: 129–32 <https://doi.org/10.5455/ijmsph.2013.161020133>.

Posner, J., Kayastha, P., Davis, D., Limoges, J., O’Donnell, C. and Yue, K. (2009) ‘Development of leadership self-efficacy and collective efficacy: adolescent girls across castes as peer educators in Nepal’, Global Public Health 4: 284–302 <https://doi.org/10.1080/17441690902783157>.

Ramaiya, A. (2018) ‘Time of the Month’: A Mixed-Method Study to Understand and Improve Menstrual Health and Hygiene Management in Rural North India, Philadelphia, PA: Drexel University.

Sahoo, K.C., Hulland, K.R.S., Caruso, B.A., Swain, R., Freeman, M.C., Panigrahi, P. and Dreibelbis, R. (2015) ‘Sanitation-related psychosocial stress: a grounded theory study of women across the life-course in Odisha, India’, Social Science & Medicine 139: 80–9 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.06.031>.

Sallis, J.F., Owen, N. and Fisher, E.B. (2008) ‘Ecological models of health behavior’, in K. Glanz, B.K. Rimer, and K. Viswanath (eds.), Health Behavior and Health Education, pp. 466–85, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Schwartz, S. (1973) ‘Normative explanations of helping behavior: a critique, proposal, and empirical test’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 9: 349–64.

Shah, S.P., Nair, R., Shah, P.P., Modi, D.K., Desai, S.A. and Desai, L. (2013) ‘Improving quality of life with new menstrual hygiene practices among adolescent tribal girls in rural Gujarat, India’, Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters 21: 205–13 <https://doi.org/10.1016/S0968-8080(13)41691-9>.

Shankaraiah, R., Haveri, S., Mallappa, K. and Saheb, W. (2013) ‘Menstrual practices among adolescent girls in rural area’, International Journal of Child and Adolescent Health 6: 305–9.

Shridevi, K. and Padma, K. (2013) ‘A cross sectional study on menstrual hygiene among adolescent girls in urban health center field practice area of a medical college in west godavari district, Andhra Pradesh’, Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences 2: 6394–401.

Sommer, M., Ferron, S., Cavill, S. and House, S. (2015a) ‘Violence, gender and WASH: spurring action on a complex, under-documented and sensitive topic’, Environment & Urbanization 27: 105–16 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247814564528>.

Sommer, M., Sutherland, C. and Chandra-Mouli, V. (2015b) ‘Putting menarche and girls into the global population health agenda’, Reproductive Health 12: 10–12 <https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-015-0009-8>.

Sumpter, C. and Torondel, B. (2013) ‘A systematic review of the health and social effects of menstrual hygiene management’, PLoS One 8(4): e62004 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062004>.

Thakre, S.B., Thakre, S.S., Reddy, M., Rathi, N., Pathak, K. and Ughade, S. (2011) ‘Menstrual hygiene: knowledge and practice among adolescent school girls of Saoner, Nagpur District’, Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research 5: 1027–33.

Thakur, H., Aronsson, A., Bansode, S., Stalsby Lundborg, C., Dalvie, S. and Faxelid, E. (2014) ‘Knowledge, practices, and restrictions related to menstruation among young women from low socioeconomic community in Mumbai, India’, Frontiers in Public Health 2: 72 <https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2014.00072>.

UNICEF (2015) A Communication Framework: Menstrual Management, New Delhi, India.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2015) ‘Post-2015 sustainable development agenda’ [online] <http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/mdgoverview/post-2015-development-agenda.html> [accessed 5 October 2019].

van Eijk, A.M., Sivakami, M., Thakkar, M.B., Bauman, A., Laserson, K.F., Coates, S. and Phillips-Howard, P.A. (2016) ‘Menstrual hygiene management among adolescent girls in India: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, BMJ Open 6: e010290 <https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010290>.

Varghese, M., Ravichandran, L. and Anandhan, A.K. (2015) ‘Knowledge and practice of menstrual hygiene among school going adolescents’, Indian Journal of Youth and Adolescent Health 3: 35–43.

Verma, P., Ahmed, S. and Srivastava, R. (2013) ‘Knowledge and practices about menstrual hygiene among higher secondary school girls’, Indian Journal of Community Health 25: 265–71.

Winkler, I.T. (2019) ‘Human rights shine a light on unmet menstrual health needs and menstruation at the margins’, Obstetrics & Gynecology 133: 235–7 <https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000003098>.

Yagnik, A.S. (2012) ‘Construction of negative images of menstruation in Indian TV commercials’, Health Care for Women International 33: 756–71 <https://doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2012.684814>.

Yagnik, A.S. (2014) ‘Reframing menstruation in India: metamorphosis of the menstrual taboo with the changing media coverage’, Health Care for Women International 35: 617–33 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2013.838246>.

Altheide, D.L. (1999) ‘What is a structural barrier?’ [online], Arizona State University <http://www.public.asu.edu/~atdla/womenandminorities/tsld003.htm> [accessed 5 October 2019].

Arumugam, B., Nagalingam, S., Varman, P., Ravi, P. and Ganesan, R. (2014) ‘Menstrual hygiene practices: is it practically impractical?’ International Journal of Medicine and Public Health 4: 472–6 <https://doi.org/10.4103/2230-8598.144120>.

Bhattacherjee, S., Ray, K., Biswas, R. and Chakraborty, M. (2013) ‘Menstruation: experiences of adolescent slum dwelling girls of Siliguri City, West Bengal, India’, Journal of Basic and Clinical Reproductive Sciences 2: 85 <https://doi.org/10.4103/2278-960X.118646>.

Bobel, C. (2019) The Managed Body: Developing Girls and Menstrual Health in the Global South, Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.

Chothe, V., Khubchandani, J., Seabert, D., Asalkar, M., Rakshe, S., Firke, A., Midha, I. and Simmons, R. (2014) ‘Students’ perceptions and doubts about menstruation in developing countries: a case study from India’, Health Promotion Practice 15: 319–26 <https://doi.org/10.1177/1524839914525175>.

Cialdini, R.B., Reno, R.R. and Kallgren, C.A. (1990) ‘A focus theory of normative conduct: recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58: 1015–26 <https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.6.1015>.

Das, P., Baker, K.K., Dutta, A., Swain, T., Sahoo, S., Das, B.S., Panda, B., Nayak, A., Bara, M., Bilung, B., Mishra, P.R., Panigrahi, P., Cairncross, S. and Torondel, B. (2015) ‘Menstrual hygiene practices, WASH access and the risk of urogenital infection in women from Odisha, India’, PLoS One 10: e0130777 <https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0130777>.

Dasgupta, A. and Sarkar, M. (2008) ‘Menstrual hygiene: how hygienic is the adolescent girl?’ Indian Journal of Community Medicine 33: 77–80 <https://doi.org/10.4103%2F0970-0218.40872>.

Farage, M.A., Miller, K.W. and Davis, A. (2011) ‘Cultural aspects of menstruation and menstrual hygiene in adolescents’, Expert Review of Obstetrics & Gynecology 6: 127–39 <https://doi.org/10.1586/eog.11.1>.

Garg, R., Shobha, G. and Gupta, S. (2012) ‘India moves towards menstrual hygiene: subsidized sanitary napkins for rural adolescent girls – issues and challenges’, Maternal and Child Health Journal 16: 767–74 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-011-0798-5>.

Garg, S. and Anand, T. (2015) ‘Menstruation related myths in India: strategies for combating it’, Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 4: 184–6 <https://doi.org/10.4103%2F2249-4863.154627>.

Jain, A., Aswar, N.R., Domple, V.K., Doibale, M.K. and Barure, B.S. (2014) ‘Menstrual hygiene awareness among rural unmarried girls’, Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences 3: 1413–9 <https://doi.org/10.14260/jemds/2014/2000>.

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Kaundal, M. and Thakur, B. (2014) ‘A dialogue on menstrual taboo’, Indian Journal of Community Health 26: 192–5.

Khanna, A. (2005) ‘Menstrual practices and reproductive problems: a study of adolescent girls in Rajasthan’, Journal of Health Management 7: 91–107 <https://doi.org/10.1177/097206340400700103>.

Kumar, A. and Srivastava, K. (2011) ‘Cultural and social practices regarding menstruation among adolescent girls’, Social Work in Public Health 26: 594–604 <https://doi.org/10.1080/19371918.2010.525144>.

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Mahon, T. and Fernandes, M. (2010) ‘Menstrual hygiene in South Asia: a neglected issue for WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) programmes’, Gender & Development 18: 99–113 <https://doi.org/10.1080/13552071003600083>.

Mann, J.M. (1996) ‘Health and human rights’, BMJ 312: 924–5 <https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.312.7036.924>.

Mehta, S., Khatuja, R., Nigam, S., Gupta, K. and Goel, N. (2013) ‘Menstrual hygiene: a “red alert” situation’, European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 170: 577–8 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2013.06.046>.

Misra, P., Upadhyay, R.P., Sharma, V., Anand, K. and Gupta, V. (2013) ‘A community-based study of menstrual hygiene practices and willingness to pay for sanitary napkins among women of a rural community in northern India’, National Medical Journal of India 26: 335–7.

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Narayan, K., Srinivasa, D., Pelto, P. and Veerammal, S. (2001) ‘Puberty rituals, reproductive knowledge and health of adolescent schoolgirls in South India’, Asia-Pacific Population Journal 16: 225–38 <https://doi.org/10.18356/65d467c6-en>.

Paria, B., Bhattacharyya, A. and Das, S. (2014) ‘A comparative study on menstrual hygiene among urban and rural adolescent girls of west Bengal’, Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 3: 413–7 <https://doi.org/10.4103%2F2249-4863.148131>.

Patle, R. and Kubde, S. (2014) ‘Comparative study on menstrual hygiene in rural and urban adolescent’, International Journal of Medical Science and Public Health 3: 129–32 <https://doi.org/10.5455/ijmsph.2013.161020133>.

Posner, J., Kayastha, P., Davis, D., Limoges, J., O’Donnell, C. and Yue, K. (2009) ‘Development of leadership self-efficacy and collective efficacy: adolescent girls across castes as peer educators in Nepal’, Global Public Health 4: 284–302 <https://doi.org/10.1080/17441690902783157>.

Ramaiya, A. (2018) ‘Time of the Month’: A Mixed-Method Study to Understand and Improve Menstrual Health and Hygiene Management in Rural North India, Philadelphia, PA: Drexel University.

Sahoo, K.C., Hulland, K.R.S., Caruso, B.A., Swain, R., Freeman, M.C., Panigrahi, P. and Dreibelbis, R. (2015) ‘Sanitation-related psychosocial stress: a grounded theory study of women across the life-course in Odisha, India’, Social Science & Medicine 139: 80–9 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.06.031>.

Sallis, J.F., Owen, N. and Fisher, E.B. (2008) ‘Ecological models of health behavior’, in K. Glanz, B.K. Rimer, and K. Viswanath (eds.), Health Behavior and Health Education, pp. 466–85, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Schwartz, S. (1973) ‘Normative explanations of helping behavior: a critique, proposal, and empirical test’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 9: 349–64.

Shah, S.P., Nair, R., Shah, P.P., Modi, D.K., Desai, S.A. and Desai, L. (2013) ‘Improving quality of life with new menstrual hygiene practices among adolescent tribal girls in rural Gujarat, India’, Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters 21: 205–13 <https://doi.org/10.1016/S0968-8080(13)41691-9>.

Shankaraiah, R., Haveri, S., Mallappa, K. and Saheb, W. (2013) ‘Menstrual practices among adolescent girls in rural area’, International Journal of Child and Adolescent Health 6: 305–9.

Shridevi, K. and Padma, K. (2013) ‘A cross sectional study on menstrual hygiene among adolescent girls in urban health center field practice area of a medical college in west godavari district, Andhra Pradesh’, Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences 2: 6394–401.

Sommer, M., Ferron, S., Cavill, S. and House, S. (2015a) ‘Violence, gender and WASH: spurring action on a complex, under-documented and sensitive topic’, Environment & Urbanization 27: 105–16 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247814564528>.

Sommer, M., Sutherland, C. and Chandra-Mouli, V. (2015b) ‘Putting menarche and girls into the global population health agenda’, Reproductive Health 12: 10–12 <https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-015-0009-8>.

Sumpter, C. and Torondel, B. (2013) ‘A systematic review of the health and social effects of menstrual hygiene management’, PLoS One 8(4): e62004 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062004>.

Thakre, S.B., Thakre, S.S., Reddy, M., Rathi, N., Pathak, K. and Ughade, S. (2011) ‘Menstrual hygiene: knowledge and practice among adolescent school girls of Saoner, Nagpur District’, Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research 5: 1027–33.

Thakur, H., Aronsson, A., Bansode, S., Stalsby Lundborg, C., Dalvie, S. and Faxelid, E. (2014) ‘Knowledge, practices, and restrictions related to menstruation among young women from low socioeconomic community in Mumbai, India’, Frontiers in Public Health 2: 72 <https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2014.00072>.

UNICEF (2015) A Communication Framework: Menstrual Management, New Delhi, India.

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van Eijk, A.M., Sivakami, M., Thakkar, M.B., Bauman, A., Laserson, K.F., Coates, S. and Phillips-Howard, P.A. (2016) ‘Menstrual hygiene management among adolescent girls in India: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, BMJ Open 6: e010290 <https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010290>.

Varghese, M., Ravichandran, L. and Anandhan, A.K. (2015) ‘Knowledge and practice of menstrual hygiene among school going adolescents’, Indian Journal of Youth and Adolescent Health 3: 35–43.

Verma, P., Ahmed, S. and Srivastava, R. (2013) ‘Knowledge and practices about menstrual hygiene among higher secondary school girls’, Indian Journal of Community Health 25: 265–71.

Winkler, I.T. (2019) ‘Human rights shine a light on unmet menstrual health needs and menstruation at the margins’, Obstetrics & Gynecology 133: 235–7 <https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000003098>.

Yagnik, A.S. (2012) ‘Construction of negative images of menstruation in Indian TV commercials’, Health Care for Women International 33: 756–71 <https://doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2012.684814>.

Yagnik, A.S. (2014) ‘Reframing menstruation in India: metamorphosis of the menstrual taboo with the changing media coverage’, Health Care for Women International 35: 617–33 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2013.838246>.

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Garg, S. and Anand, T. (2015) ‘Menstruation related myths in India: strategies for combating it’, Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 4: 184–6 <https://doi.org/10.4103%2F2249-4863.154627>.

Jain, A., Aswar, N.R., Domple, V.K., Doibale, M.K. and Barure, B.S. (2014) ‘Menstrual hygiene awareness among rural unmarried girls’, Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences 3: 1413–9 <https://doi.org/10.14260/jemds/2014/2000>.

Juyal, R., Kandpal, S. and Semwal, J. (2013) ‘Social aspects of menstruation related practices in adolescent girls of district Dehradun’, Indian Journal of Community Health 25: 213–6.

Kaundal, M. and Thakur, B. (2014) ‘A dialogue on menstrual taboo’, Indian Journal of Community Health 26: 192–5.

Khanna, A. (2005) ‘Menstrual practices and reproductive problems: a study of adolescent girls in Rajasthan’, Journal of Health Management 7: 91–107 <https://doi.org/10.1177/097206340400700103>.

Kumar, A. and Srivastava, K. (2011) ‘Cultural and social practices regarding menstruation among adolescent girls’, Social Work in Public Health 26: 594–604 <https://doi.org/10.1080/19371918.2010.525144>.

Latkin, C., Weeks, M.R., Glasman, L., Galletly, C. and Albarracin, D. (2010) ‘A dynamic social systems model for considering structural factors in HIV prevention and detection’, AIDS and Behavior 14: 222–38 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-010-9804-y>.

Lavrakas, P.J. (2011a) ‘Interrater reliability’, in Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications: 361.

Lavrakas, P.J. (2011b) ‘Computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI)’, in Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications: 118–122.

Mackie, G., Moneti, F., Shakya, H. and Denny, E. (2015) What are Social Norms? How are they measured? [pdf], UNICEF/University of California <http://www.unicef.org/protection/files/4_09_30_Whole_What_are_Social_Norms.pdf> [accessed 5 October 2019].

Mahon, T. and Fernandes, M. (2010) ‘Menstrual hygiene in South Asia: a neglected issue for WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) programmes’, Gender & Development 18: 99–113 <https://doi.org/10.1080/13552071003600083>.

Mann, J.M. (1996) ‘Health and human rights’, BMJ 312: 924–5 <https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.312.7036.924>.

Mehta, S., Khatuja, R., Nigam, S., Gupta, K. and Goel, N. (2013) ‘Menstrual hygiene: a “red alert” situation’, European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 170: 577–8 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2013.06.046>.

Misra, P., Upadhyay, R.P., Sharma, V., Anand, K. and Gupta, V. (2013) ‘A community-based study of menstrual hygiene practices and willingness to pay for sanitary napkins among women of a rural community in northern India’, National Medical Journal of India 26: 335–7.

Montano, D. and Kasprzyk, D. (2008) ‘Theory of reasoned action, theory of planned behavior, and the integrated behavioral model’, in K. Glanz, B.K. Rimer, and K. Viswanath (eds.), Health Behavior and Health Education, p. 74, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Narayan, K., Srinivasa, D., Pelto, P. and Veerammal, S. (2001) ‘Puberty rituals, reproductive knowledge and health of adolescent schoolgirls in South India’, Asia-Pacific Population Journal 16: 225–38 <https://doi.org/10.18356/65d467c6-en>.

Paria, B., Bhattacharyya, A. and Das, S. (2014) ‘A comparative study on menstrual hygiene among urban and rural adolescent girls of west Bengal’, Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 3: 413–7 <https://doi.org/10.4103%2F2249-4863.148131>.

Patle, R. and Kubde, S. (2014) ‘Comparative study on menstrual hygiene in rural and urban adolescent’, International Journal of Medical Science and Public Health 3: 129–32 <https://doi.org/10.5455/ijmsph.2013.161020133>.

Posner, J., Kayastha, P., Davis, D., Limoges, J., O’Donnell, C. and Yue, K. (2009) ‘Development of leadership self-efficacy and collective efficacy: adolescent girls across castes as peer educators in Nepal’, Global Public Health 4: 284–302 <https://doi.org/10.1080/17441690902783157>.

Ramaiya, A. (2018) ‘Time of the Month’: A Mixed-Method Study to Understand and Improve Menstrual Health and Hygiene Management in Rural North India, Philadelphia, PA: Drexel University.

Sahoo, K.C., Hulland, K.R.S., Caruso, B.A., Swain, R., Freeman, M.C., Panigrahi, P. and Dreibelbis, R. (2015) ‘Sanitation-related psychosocial stress: a grounded theory study of women across the life-course in Odisha, India’, Social Science & Medicine 139: 80–9 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.06.031>.

Sallis, J.F., Owen, N. and Fisher, E.B. (2008) ‘Ecological models of health behavior’, in K. Glanz, B.K. Rimer, and K. Viswanath (eds.), Health Behavior and Health Education, pp. 466–85, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Schwartz, S. (1973) ‘Normative explanations of helping behavior: a critique, proposal, and empirical test’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 9: 349–64.

Shah, S.P., Nair, R., Shah, P.P., Modi, D.K., Desai, S.A. and Desai, L. (2013) ‘Improving quality of life with new menstrual hygiene practices among adolescent tribal girls in rural Gujarat, India’, Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters 21: 205–13 <https://doi.org/10.1016/S0968-8080(13)41691-9>.

Shankaraiah, R., Haveri, S., Mallappa, K. and Saheb, W. (2013) ‘Menstrual practices among adolescent girls in rural area’, International Journal of Child and Adolescent Health 6: 305–9.

Shridevi, K. and Padma, K. (2013) ‘A cross sectional study on menstrual hygiene among adolescent girls in urban health center field practice area of a medical college in west godavari district, Andhra Pradesh’, Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences 2: 6394–401.

Sommer, M., Ferron, S., Cavill, S. and House, S. (2015a) ‘Violence, gender and WASH: spurring action on a complex, under-documented and sensitive topic’, Environment & Urbanization 27: 105–16 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247814564528>.

Sommer, M., Sutherland, C. and Chandra-Mouli, V. (2015b) ‘Putting menarche and girls into the global population health agenda’, Reproductive Health 12: 10–12 <https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-015-0009-8>.

Sumpter, C. and Torondel, B. (2013) ‘A systematic review of the health and social effects of menstrual hygiene management’, PLoS One 8(4): e62004 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062004>.

Thakre, S.B., Thakre, S.S., Reddy, M., Rathi, N., Pathak, K. and Ughade, S. (2011) ‘Menstrual hygiene: knowledge and practice among adolescent school girls of Saoner, Nagpur District’, Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research 5: 1027–33.

Thakur, H., Aronsson, A., Bansode, S., Stalsby Lundborg, C., Dalvie, S. and Faxelid, E. (2014) ‘Knowledge, practices, and restrictions related to menstruation among young women from low socioeconomic community in Mumbai, India’, Frontiers in Public Health 2: 72 <https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2014.00072>.

UNICEF (2015) A Communication Framework: Menstrual Management, New Delhi, India.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2015) ‘Post-2015 sustainable development agenda’ [online] <http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/mdgoverview/post-2015-development-agenda.html> [accessed 5 October 2019].

van Eijk, A.M., Sivakami, M., Thakkar, M.B., Bauman, A., Laserson, K.F., Coates, S. and Phillips-Howard, P.A. (2016) ‘Menstrual hygiene management among adolescent girls in India: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, BMJ Open 6: e010290 <https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010290>.

Varghese, M., Ravichandran, L. and Anandhan, A.K. (2015) ‘Knowledge and practice of menstrual hygiene among school going adolescents’, Indian Journal of Youth and Adolescent Health 3: 35–43.

Verma, P., Ahmed, S. and Srivastava, R. (2013) ‘Knowledge and practices about menstrual hygiene among higher secondary school girls’, Indian Journal of Community Health 25: 265–71.

Winkler, I.T. (2019) ‘Human rights shine a light on unmet menstrual health needs and menstruation at the margins’, Obstetrics & Gynecology 133: 235–7 <https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000003098>.

Yagnik, A.S. (2012) ‘Construction of negative images of menstruation in Indian TV commercials’, Health Care for Women International 33: 756–71 <https://doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2012.684814>.

Yagnik, A.S. (2014) ‘Reframing menstruation in India: metamorphosis of the menstrual taboo with the changing media coverage’, Health Care for Women International 35: 617–33 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2013.838246>.