Designing stakeholder consultations for institutional change: a case study from Ghana’s sanitation sector
This article evaluates the stakeholder consultation process that was undertaken to support decision-making for the new sanitation authority to be established in Ghana. This initiative of creating a specialized authority – currently referred to as the National Sanitation Authority (NSA) – emerges from the need to restructure the sector in Ghana, like in many other countries worldwide. From the learning of this study we seek to inform research and practice around the design of stakeholder consultation methods in institutional restructuration contexts. The consultation process gathered views on different aspects of the NSA, including its functions, the administrative level(s) at which it should operate, and its financing. A stakeholder analysis, a series of workshops, and key informant interviews were conducted. A tool was developed to track representativeness of participants involved in the process. Principles of stakeholder engagement developed by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development informed the methodology. This consultation process highlighted the challenges of undertaking sector restructuration where responsibilities are shared between many entities, and with varying levels of interest in the planned reforms. Divergent opinions emerged on the proposed functions of the NSA, some of which represent direct conflicts of interest: for example, setting regulations, developing infrastructure, and financing. Key lessons from the consultation include the need for efficiency when targeting informants through rapid identification of key stakeholders. However, this must be balanced with inclusivity and representativeness, which require continuous tracking of who participates, paired with flexibility to maximize potential for reaching consensus that enables the strengthening of the sanitation sector.Akhmouch, A. and Clavreul, D. (2016) ‘Stakeholder engagement for inclusive water governance: “practicing what we preach” with the OECD Water Governance Initiative’, Water (Switzerland) 8(5): 1–17 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w8050204>.
Aligica, P.D. (2006) ‘Institutional and stakeholder mapping: frameworks for policy analysis and institutional change’, Public Organization Review 6(1): 79–90 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11115-006-6833-0>.
Department of Public Expenditure and Reform (2016) Consultation Principles & Guidance [pdf], Dublin <https://assets.gov.ie/5579/140119163201-9e43dea3f4b14d56a705960cb9354c8b.pdf> [accessed 30 June 2019].
Esogbue, A.O. and Ahipo, Z.M. (1982) ‘A fuzzy sets model for measuring the effectiveness of public participation in water resources planning’, Journal of the American Water Resources Association 18(3): 451–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.1982.tb00011.x>.
Esseku, H. (2016) TrackFin Initiative: Results from Ghana, 27th Mole Conference [pdf] <https://www.washghana.net/sites/default/files/Mole%20-%20TrackFin%20Ghana%20Nov%2022%2C%202016.pdf> [accessed 25 June 2019].
Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Ghana (2016) A Guide to District Assemblies in Ghana [pdf], ILGS and Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung <http://www.fesghana.org/uploads/PDF/DISTRICT%20ASSEMBLY_2nd%20Edition.pdf> [accessed 21 February 2019].
Gregory, R., Fischhoff, B., Thorne, S. and Butte, G. (2003) ‘A multi-channel stakeholder consultation process for transmission deregulation’, Energy Policy 31: 1291–99 <https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-4215(02)00188-X>.
International Finance Corporation (IFC) (2007) Stakeholder Engagement: A Good Practice Handbook for Companies Doing Business in Emerging Markets [pdf], Washington, DC: IFC <https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/938f1a0048855805beacfe6a6515bb18/IFC_StakeholderEngagement.pdf?MOD=AJPERES> [accessed 25 June 2019].
Mansour, G. and Esseku, H. (2017) Situation Analysis of the Urban Sanitation Sector in Ghana [pdf], Urban Sanitation Research Initiative Ghana, London <https://www.wsup.com/content/uploads/2017/09/Situation-analysis-of-the-urban-sanitation-sector-in-Ghana.pdf> [accessed 25 June 2019].
Medilanski, E., Chuan, L., Mosler, H-J., Schertenleib, R. and Larsen, T.A. (2007) ‘Identifying the institutional decision process to introduce decentralized sanitation in the city of Kunming (China)’, Environmental Management 39(5): 648–62 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00267-005-0321-0>.
Murray, A. and Drechsel, P. (2011) ‘Why do some wastewater treatment facilities work when the majority fail? Case study from the sanitation sector in Ghana’, Waterlines 30(2): 135–49 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2011.015>.
Newcombe, R. (2003) ‘From client to project stakeholders: a stakeholder mapping approach’, Construction Management and Economics 21(8): 841–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0144619032000072137>.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2012) The Guidelines Manual: Process and Methods [online], London: NICE <https://www.nice.org.uk/process/pmg6/chapter/introduction>.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2015) Stakeholder Engagement for Inclusive Water Governance, Paris: OECD <http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264231122-en> [accessed 25 June 2019].
Polonsky, M.J. and Scott, D. (2005) ‘Empirical examination of the stakeholder strategy matrix’, European Journal of Marketing 39(9–10): 1199–215 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/03090560510610806>.
Reed, M.S., Graves, A., Dandy, N., Posthumus, H., Hubacek, K., Morris, J., Prell, C., Quinn, C.H. and Stronger, L.C. (2009) ‘Who’s in and why? A typology of stakeholder analysis methods for natural resource management’, Journal of Environmental Management 90(5): 1933–49 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.01.001>.
Rietbergen-McCracken, J. and Narayan, D. (1998) Participation and Social Assessment: Tools and Techniques, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Rowe, G. and Frewer, L.J. (2004) ‘Evaluating public-participation exercises: a research agenda’, Science Technology and Human Values 29(4): 512–57 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0162243903259197>.
Seppälä, O.T. (2002) ‘Effective water and sanitation policy reform implementation: need for systemic approach and stakeholder participation’, Water Policy 4(4): 367–88 <https://doi.org/10.1016/S1366-7017(02)00036-3>.
Walker, D.H.T., Bourne, L.M. and Shelley, A. (2008) ‘Influence, stakeholder mapping and visualization’, Construction Management and Economics 26(6): 645–58 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01446190701882390>.
Watt, E. (2008) A Framework for Evaluating Institutional Stakeholder Engagement at the Ministry of Health Services, Victoria, BC: University of Victoria <https://dspace.library.uvic.ca/bitstream/handle/1828/1222/watt_eben.pdf?sequence=1> [accessed 19 February 2019].
World Health Organization (WHO)/UNICEF (2017) ‘JMP Data: Ghana’ [online] <https://washdata.org/data/household#!/> [accessed 30 June 2019].
WSP (2012) Ghana Loses GHC420 Million Annually due to Poor Sanitation, Washington, DC: WSP.
Yang, J., Shen, P.Q., Bourne, L., Ho, C.M.F. and Xue, X. (2011) ‘A typology of operational approaches for stakeholder analysis and engagement’, Construction Management and Economics 29(2): 145–62 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01446193.2010.521759>.
Akhmouch, A. and Clavreul, D. (2016) ‘Stakeholder engagement for inclusive water governance: “practicing what we preach” with the OECD Water Governance Initiative’, Water (Switzerland) 8(5): 1–17 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w8050204>.
Aligica, P.D. (2006) ‘Institutional and stakeholder mapping: frameworks for policy analysis and institutional change’, Public Organization Review 6(1): 79–90 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11115-006-6833-0>.
Department of Public Expenditure and Reform (2016) Consultation Principles & Guidance [pdf], Dublin <https://assets.gov.ie/5579/140119163201-9e43dea3f4b14d56a705960cb9354c8b.pdf> [accessed 30 June 2019].
Esogbue, A.O. and Ahipo, Z.M. (1982) ‘A fuzzy sets model for measuring the effectiveness of public participation in water resources planning’, Journal of the American Water Resources Association 18(3): 451–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.1982.tb00011.x>.
Esseku, H. (2016) TrackFin Initiative: Results from Ghana, 27th Mole Conference [pdf] <https://www.washghana.net/sites/default/files/Mole%20-%20TrackFin%20Ghana%20Nov%2022%2C%202016.pdf> [accessed 25 June 2019].
Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Ghana (2016) A Guide to District Assemblies in Ghana [pdf], ILGS and Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung <http://www.fesghana.org/uploads/PDF/DISTRICT%20ASSEMBLY_2nd%20Edition.pdf> [accessed 21 February 2019].
Gregory, R., Fischhoff, B., Thorne, S. and Butte, G. (2003) ‘A multi-channel stakeholder consultation process for transmission deregulation’, Energy Policy 31: 1291–99 <https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-4215(02)00188-X>.
International Finance Corporation (IFC) (2007) Stakeholder Engagement: A Good Practice Handbook for Companies Doing Business in Emerging Markets [pdf], Washington, DC: IFC <https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/938f1a0048855805beacfe6a6515bb18/IFC_StakeholderEngagement.pdf?MOD=AJPERES> [accessed 25 June 2019].
Mansour, G. and Esseku, H. (2017) Situation Analysis of the Urban Sanitation Sector in Ghana [pdf], Urban Sanitation Research Initiative Ghana, London <https://www.wsup.com/content/uploads/2017/09/Situation-analysis-of-the-urban-sanitation-sector-in-Ghana.pdf> [accessed 25 June 2019].
Medilanski, E., Chuan, L., Mosler, H-J., Schertenleib, R. and Larsen, T.A. (2007) ‘Identifying the institutional decision process to introduce decentralized sanitation in the city of Kunming (China)’, Environmental Management 39(5): 648–62 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00267-005-0321-0>.
Murray, A. and Drechsel, P. (2011) ‘Why do some wastewater treatment facilities work when the majority fail? Case study from the sanitation sector in Ghana’, Waterlines 30(2): 135–49 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2011.015>.
Newcombe, R. (2003) ‘From client to project stakeholders: a stakeholder mapping approach’, Construction Management and Economics 21(8): 841–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0144619032000072137>.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2012) The Guidelines Manual: Process and Methods [online], London: NICE <https://www.nice.org.uk/process/pmg6/chapter/introduction>.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2015) Stakeholder Engagement for Inclusive Water Governance, Paris: OECD <http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264231122-en> [accessed 25 June 2019].
Polonsky, M.J. and Scott, D. (2005) ‘Empirical examination of the stakeholder strategy matrix’, European Journal of Marketing 39(9–10): 1199–215 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/03090560510610806>.
Reed, M.S., Graves, A., Dandy, N., Posthumus, H., Hubacek, K., Morris, J., Prell, C., Quinn, C.H. and Stronger, L.C. (2009) ‘Who’s in and why? A typology of stakeholder analysis methods for natural resource management’, Journal of Environmental Management 90(5): 1933–49 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.01.001>.
Rietbergen-McCracken, J. and Narayan, D. (1998) Participation and Social Assessment: Tools and Techniques, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Rowe, G. and Frewer, L.J. (2004) ‘Evaluating public-participation exercises: a research agenda’, Science Technology and Human Values 29(4): 512–57 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0162243903259197>.
Seppälä, O.T. (2002) ‘Effective water and sanitation policy reform implementation: need for systemic approach and stakeholder participation’, Water Policy 4(4): 367–88 <https://doi.org/10.1016/S1366-7017(02)00036-3>.
Walker, D.H.T., Bourne, L.M. and Shelley, A. (2008) ‘Influence, stakeholder mapping and visualization’, Construction Management and Economics 26(6): 645–58 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01446190701882390>.
Watt, E. (2008) A Framework for Evaluating Institutional Stakeholder Engagement at the Ministry of Health Services, Victoria, BC: University of Victoria <https://dspace.library.uvic.ca/bitstream/handle/1828/1222/watt_eben.pdf?sequence=1> [accessed 19 February 2019].
World Health Organization (WHO)/UNICEF (2017) ‘JMP Data: Ghana’ [online] <https://washdata.org/data/household#!/> [accessed 30 June 2019].
WSP (2012) Ghana Loses GHC420 Million Annually due to Poor Sanitation, Washington, DC: WSP.
Yang, J., Shen, P.Q., Bourne, L., Ho, C.M.F. and Xue, X. (2011) ‘A typology of operational approaches for stakeholder analysis and engagement’, Construction Management and Economics 29(2): 145–62 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01446193.2010.521759>.
Akhmouch, A. and Clavreul, D. (2016) ‘Stakeholder engagement for inclusive water governance: “practicing what we preach” with the OECD Water Governance Initiative’, Water (Switzerland) 8(5): 1–17 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w8050204>.
Aligica, P.D. (2006) ‘Institutional and stakeholder mapping: frameworks for policy analysis and institutional change’, Public Organization Review 6(1): 79–90 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11115-006-6833-0>.
Department of Public Expenditure and Reform (2016) Consultation Principles & Guidance [pdf], Dublin <https://assets.gov.ie/5579/140119163201-9e43dea3f4b14d56a705960cb9354c8b.pdf> [accessed 30 June 2019].
Esogbue, A.O. and Ahipo, Z.M. (1982) ‘A fuzzy sets model for measuring the effectiveness of public participation in water resources planning’, Journal of the American Water Resources Association 18(3): 451–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.1982.tb00011.x>.
Esseku, H. (2016) TrackFin Initiative: Results from Ghana, 27th Mole Conference [pdf] <https://www.washghana.net/sites/default/files/Mole%20-%20TrackFin%20Ghana%20Nov%2022%2C%202016.pdf> [accessed 25 June 2019].
Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Ghana (2016) A Guide to District Assemblies in Ghana [pdf], ILGS and Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung <http://www.fesghana.org/uploads/PDF/DISTRICT%20ASSEMBLY_2nd%20Edition.pdf> [accessed 21 February 2019].
Gregory, R., Fischhoff, B., Thorne, S. and Butte, G. (2003) ‘A multi-channel stakeholder consultation process for transmission deregulation’, Energy Policy 31: 1291–99 <https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-4215(02)00188-X>.
International Finance Corporation (IFC) (2007) Stakeholder Engagement: A Good Practice Handbook for Companies Doing Business in Emerging Markets [pdf], Washington, DC: IFC <https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/938f1a0048855805beacfe6a6515bb18/IFC_StakeholderEngagement.pdf?MOD=AJPERES> [accessed 25 June 2019].
Mansour, G. and Esseku, H. (2017) Situation Analysis of the Urban Sanitation Sector in Ghana [pdf], Urban Sanitation Research Initiative Ghana, London <https://www.wsup.com/content/uploads/2017/09/Situation-analysis-of-the-urban-sanitation-sector-in-Ghana.pdf> [accessed 25 June 2019].
Medilanski, E., Chuan, L., Mosler, H-J., Schertenleib, R. and Larsen, T.A. (2007) ‘Identifying the institutional decision process to introduce decentralized sanitation in the city of Kunming (China)’, Environmental Management 39(5): 648–62 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00267-005-0321-0>.
Murray, A. and Drechsel, P. (2011) ‘Why do some wastewater treatment facilities work when the majority fail? Case study from the sanitation sector in Ghana’, Waterlines 30(2): 135–49 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2011.015>.
Newcombe, R. (2003) ‘From client to project stakeholders: a stakeholder mapping approach’, Construction Management and Economics 21(8): 841–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0144619032000072137>.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2012) The Guidelines Manual: Process and Methods [online], London: NICE <https://www.nice.org.uk/process/pmg6/chapter/introduction>.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2015) Stakeholder Engagement for Inclusive Water Governance, Paris: OECD <http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264231122-en> [accessed 25 June 2019].
Polonsky, M.J. and Scott, D. (2005) ‘Empirical examination of the stakeholder strategy matrix’, European Journal of Marketing 39(9–10): 1199–215 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/03090560510610806>.
Reed, M.S., Graves, A., Dandy, N., Posthumus, H., Hubacek, K., Morris, J., Prell, C., Quinn, C.H. and Stronger, L.C. (2009) ‘Who’s in and why? A typology of stakeholder analysis methods for natural resource management’, Journal of Environmental Management 90(5): 1933–49 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.01.001>.
Rietbergen-McCracken, J. and Narayan, D. (1998) Participation and Social Assessment: Tools and Techniques, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Rowe, G. and Frewer, L.J. (2004) ‘Evaluating public-participation exercises: a research agenda’, Science Technology and Human Values 29(4): 512–57 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0162243903259197>.
Seppälä, O.T. (2002) ‘Effective water and sanitation policy reform implementation: need for systemic approach and stakeholder participation’, Water Policy 4(4): 367–88 <https://doi.org/10.1016/S1366-7017(02)00036-3>.
Walker, D.H.T., Bourne, L.M. and Shelley, A. (2008) ‘Influence, stakeholder mapping and visualization’, Construction Management and Economics 26(6): 645–58 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01446190701882390>.
Watt, E. (2008) A Framework for Evaluating Institutional Stakeholder Engagement at the Ministry of Health Services, Victoria, BC: University of Victoria <https://dspace.library.uvic.ca/bitstream/handle/1828/1222/watt_eben.pdf?sequence=1> [accessed 19 February 2019].
World Health Organization (WHO)/UNICEF (2017) ‘JMP Data: Ghana’ [online] <https://washdata.org/data/household#!/> [accessed 30 June 2019].
WSP (2012) Ghana Loses GHC420 Million Annually due to Poor Sanitation, Washington, DC: WSP.
Yang, J., Shen, P.Q., Bourne, L., Ho, C.M.F. and Xue, X. (2011) ‘A typology of operational approaches for stakeholder analysis and engagement’, Construction Management and Economics 29(2): 145–62 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01446193.2010.521759>.
Akhmouch, A. and Clavreul, D. (2016) ‘Stakeholder engagement for inclusive water governance: “practicing what we preach” with the OECD Water Governance Initiative’, Water (Switzerland) 8(5): 1–17 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w8050204>.
Aligica, P.D. (2006) ‘Institutional and stakeholder mapping: frameworks for policy analysis and institutional change’, Public Organization Review 6(1): 79–90 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11115-006-6833-0>.
Department of Public Expenditure and Reform (2016) Consultation Principles & Guidance [pdf], Dublin <https://assets.gov.ie/5579/140119163201-9e43dea3f4b14d56a705960cb9354c8b.pdf> [accessed 30 June 2019].
Esogbue, A.O. and Ahipo, Z.M. (1982) ‘A fuzzy sets model for measuring the effectiveness of public participation in water resources planning’, Journal of the American Water Resources Association 18(3): 451–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.1982.tb00011.x>.
Esseku, H. (2016) TrackFin Initiative: Results from Ghana, 27th Mole Conference [pdf] <https://www.washghana.net/sites/default/files/Mole%20-%20TrackFin%20Ghana%20Nov%2022%2C%202016.pdf> [accessed 25 June 2019].
Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Ghana (2016) A Guide to District Assemblies in Ghana [pdf], ILGS and Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung <http://www.fesghana.org/uploads/PDF/DISTRICT%20ASSEMBLY_2nd%20Edition.pdf> [accessed 21 February 2019].
Gregory, R., Fischhoff, B., Thorne, S. and Butte, G. (2003) ‘A multi-channel stakeholder consultation process for transmission deregulation’, Energy Policy 31: 1291–99 <https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-4215(02)00188-X>.
International Finance Corporation (IFC) (2007) Stakeholder Engagement: A Good Practice Handbook for Companies Doing Business in Emerging Markets [pdf], Washington, DC: IFC <https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/938f1a0048855805beacfe6a6515bb18/IFC_StakeholderEngagement.pdf?MOD=AJPERES> [accessed 25 June 2019].
Mansour, G. and Esseku, H. (2017) Situation Analysis of the Urban Sanitation Sector in Ghana [pdf], Urban Sanitation Research Initiative Ghana, London <https://www.wsup.com/content/uploads/2017/09/Situation-analysis-of-the-urban-sanitation-sector-in-Ghana.pdf> [accessed 25 June 2019].
Medilanski, E., Chuan, L., Mosler, H-J., Schertenleib, R. and Larsen, T.A. (2007) ‘Identifying the institutional decision process to introduce decentralized sanitation in the city of Kunming (China)’, Environmental Management 39(5): 648–62 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00267-005-0321-0>.
Murray, A. and Drechsel, P. (2011) ‘Why do some wastewater treatment facilities work when the majority fail? Case study from the sanitation sector in Ghana’, Waterlines 30(2): 135–49 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2011.015>.
Newcombe, R. (2003) ‘From client to project stakeholders: a stakeholder mapping approach’, Construction Management and Economics 21(8): 841–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0144619032000072137>.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2012) The Guidelines Manual: Process and Methods [online], London: NICE <https://www.nice.org.uk/process/pmg6/chapter/introduction>.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2015) Stakeholder Engagement for Inclusive Water Governance, Paris: OECD <http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264231122-en> [accessed 25 June 2019].
Polonsky, M.J. and Scott, D. (2005) ‘Empirical examination of the stakeholder strategy matrix’, European Journal of Marketing 39(9–10): 1199–215 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/03090560510610806>.
Reed, M.S., Graves, A., Dandy, N., Posthumus, H., Hubacek, K., Morris, J., Prell, C., Quinn, C.H. and Stronger, L.C. (2009) ‘Who’s in and why? A typology of stakeholder analysis methods for natural resource management’, Journal of Environmental Management 90(5): 1933–49 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.01.001>.
Rietbergen-McCracken, J. and Narayan, D. (1998) Participation and Social Assessment: Tools and Techniques, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Rowe, G. and Frewer, L.J. (2004) ‘Evaluating public-participation exercises: a research agenda’, Science Technology and Human Values 29(4): 512–57 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0162243903259197>.
Seppälä, O.T. (2002) ‘Effective water and sanitation policy reform implementation: need for systemic approach and stakeholder participation’, Water Policy 4(4): 367–88 <https://doi.org/10.1016/S1366-7017(02)00036-3>.
Walker, D.H.T., Bourne, L.M. and Shelley, A. (2008) ‘Influence, stakeholder mapping and visualization’, Construction Management and Economics 26(6): 645–58 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01446190701882390>.
Watt, E. (2008) A Framework for Evaluating Institutional Stakeholder Engagement at the Ministry of Health Services, Victoria, BC: University of Victoria <https://dspace.library.uvic.ca/bitstream/handle/1828/1222/watt_eben.pdf?sequence=1> [accessed 19 February 2019].
World Health Organization (WHO)/UNICEF (2017) ‘JMP Data: Ghana’ [online] <https://washdata.org/data/household#!/> [accessed 30 June 2019].
WSP (2012) Ghana Loses GHC420 Million Annually due to Poor Sanitation, Washington, DC: WSP.
Yang, J., Shen, P.Q., Bourne, L., Ho, C.M.F. and Xue, X. (2011) ‘A typology of operational approaches for stakeholder analysis and engagement’, Construction Management and Economics 29(2): 145–62 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01446193.2010.521759>.
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