Menstrual hygiene management and reproductive tract infections: a comparison between rural and urban India
The objective of the research was to compare factors associated with menstrual hygiene management (MHM) between urban and rural ever-married women in India, and its effect on reproductive tract infections (RTIs). A cross-sectional study was performed analysing data from the Indian District Level Household and Facility Survey 2007–08 (DLHS-3). The respondents were ever-married women between 15 and 49 years of age (N = 577,768). A quarter of women from urban areas use improved methods compared with only 4.3 per cent in rural areas. Cloth had the highest prevalence of usage in both areas. Socio-demographic factors associated with the usage of improved methods were almost the same between localities. Women using improved methods were less likely to suffer from RTIs across localities, except for urinary tract infections (UTIs) in rural areas; UTIs (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 0.95 – 1.03 in rural areas and AOR = 0.80 – 0.88 in urban areas). Findings reiterate the complexity of MHM and the need for immediate attention from the government and other agencies to ensure that girls and women have hygienic practices during their menstrual periods which will help prevent RTIs related to poor MHM.Anand, E., Singh, J. and Unisa, S. (2015) ‘Menstrual hygiene practices and its association with reproductive tract infections and abnormal vaginal discharge among women in India’, Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare 6(4): 249–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.srhc.2015.06.001>.
Aniebue, U.U., Aniebue, P.N. and Nwankwo, T.O. (2009) ‘The impact of pre-menarcheal training on menstrual practices and hygiene of Nigerian school girls’, The Pan African Medical Journal 2: 9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/pamj.v2i1.51708>.
Auemaneekul, N., Bhandari, S. and Kerdmongkol, P. (2013) ‘Menstrual hygiene practice among adolescent in a rural district of Nepal’, Asia Journal of Public Health 4: 8–15.
Baker, K.K., Padhi, B., Torondel, B., Das, P., Dutta, A., Sahoo, K.C., Das, B., Dreibelbis, R., Caruso, B., Freeman, M.C., Sager, L. and Panigrahi, P. (2017) ‘From menarche to menopause: a population-based assessment of water, sanitation, and hygiene risk factors for reproductive tract infection symptoms over life stages in rural girls and women in India’, PLoS ONE 12(12): 1–20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188234>.
Burra, S., Patel, S. and Kerr, T. (2003) ‘Community-designed, built and managed toilet blocks in Indian cities’, Environment and Urbanization 15(2): 11–32 <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/095624780301500202>.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (no date) ‘World Factbook: South Asia: India’ [online], <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html> [accessed 20 February 2019].
Das, P., Baker, K.K., Dutta, A., Swain, T., Sahoo, S., Das, B.S., Panda, B., Nayak, A., Bara, M., Bilung, B., Mishra, P.R., Panigrahi, P., Cairncross, S. and Torondel, B. (2015) ‘Menstrual hygiene practices, WASH access and the risk of urogenital infection in women from Odisha, India’, PLoS ONE 10(6): e0130777 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0130777>.
Das, P., Swain, T., Mohanty, J.R., Sinha, S., Padhi, B., Torondel, B., Cumming, O., Panda, B., Nayak, A. and Panigrahi, P. (2018) ‘Higher vaginal pH in Trichomonas vaginalis infection with intermediate Nugent score in reproductive-age women: a hospital-based cross-sectional study in Odisha, India’, Parasitology Research 117(9): 2735–42 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00436-018-5962-z>.
Deo, D. and Ghattargi, C. (2005) ‘Perceptions and practices regarding menstruation: a comparative study in urban and rural adolescent girls’, Indian Journal of Community Medicine 30(1): 33–4.
Dielubanza, E.J. and Schaeffer, A.J. (2011) ‘Urinary tract infections in women’, Medical Clinics of North America 95(1): 27–41 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mcna.2010.08.023>.
Dutta, D., Badloe, C., Lee, H. and House, S. (2016) Supporting the Rights of Girls and Women through Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM) in the East Asia and Pacific Region: Realities, Progress and Opportunities [pdf] <http://menstrualhygieneday.org/supporting-rights-girls-women-menstrual-hygiene-management-mhm-east-asia-pacific-region/> [accessed 20 February 2019].
van Eijk, A.M., Sivakami, M., Thakkar, M.B., Bauman, A., Laerson, K.F., Coates, S. and Phillips-Howard, P.A. (2016) ‘Menstrual hygiene management among adolescent girls in India: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, BMJ Open 6(3): e010290 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010290>.
Garg, R., Goyal, S. and Gupta, S. (2012) ‘India moves towards menstrual hygiene: subsidized sanitary napkins for rural adolescent girls – issues and challenges’, Maternal and Child Health Journal 16(4): 767–74 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10995-011-0798-5>.
Garg Suneela, A.T. (2015) ‘Menstruation related myths in India: strategies for combating it’, Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 4(2): 184–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2249-4863.154627>.
Guterman, M., Mehta, P. and Gibbs, M. (2007) ‘Menstrual taboos among major religions’, The Internet Journal of World Health and Societal Politics 5(2): 1–7.
Guyton, A.C. and Hall, J.E. (2006) ‘Female physiology before pregnancy and female hormones’, in R. Gruliow and L. Belfus (eds), Medical Physiology, 11th edn, pp. 1011–26, London: Elsevier.
Hennegan, J. and Montgomery, P. (2016) ‘Do menstrual hygiene management interventions improve education and psychosocial outcomes for women and girls in low and middle income countries?’ PLoS ONE 11(2): e0146985 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146985>.
House, S., Mahon, T. and Cavill, S. (2013) ‘Bookshelf: Menstrual Hygiene Matters: a resource for improving menstrual hygiene around the world, 2012 www.wateraid.org/mhm’, Reproductive Health Matters 21(41): 257–59 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0968-8080(13)41712-3>.
International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) (2010) District Level Household and Facility Survey (DLHS-3), 2007-08: India, Mumbai: IIPS.
Kaiser, S. (2015) Menstrual Hygiene Management: National Guidelines [online], Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of India <https://mdws.gov.in/menstrual-hygiene-management-national-guidelines-december-2015> [accessed 20 February 2019].
Khanna, A. and Bhawsar, R. (2005) ‘Menstrual practices and reproductive problems: a study of adolescent girls in Rajasthan’, Journal of Health Management 7(1): 91–107 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/097206340400700103>.
Long, J., Caruso, B.A., Diego, L., Vancraeynest, K., Sahin, M., Andes, K.L. and Freeman, M.C. (2013) WASH in Schools Empowers Girls’ Education in Rural Cochabamba, Bolivia: An assessment of menstrual hygiene management in schools, New York: United Nations Children’s Fund.
Mahon, T. and Fernandes, M. (2010) ‘Menstrual hygiene in South Asia: a neglected issue for WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) programmes’, Gender & Development 18(1): 99–113 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13552071003600083>.
McCathie, R. (2006) ‘Vaginal discharge: common causes and management’, Current Obstetrics and Gynaecology 16(4): 211–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.curobgyn.2006.05.004>.
McMahon, S., Winch, P.J., Caruso, B., Obure, A.F., Ogutu, E.A., Ochari, I.A. and Rheingans, R.D. (2011) ‘“The girl with her period is the one to hang her head” reflections on menstrual management among schoolgirls in rural Kenya’, BMC International Health and Human Rights 11(1): 7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472-698X-11-7>.
Muralidharan, A., Patil, H. and Patnaik, S. (2015) ‘Unpacking the policy landscape for menstrual hygiene management: Implications for school WASH programmes in India’, Waterlines 34(1): 79–91 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2015.008>.
Paria, B., Bhattacharyya, A. and Das, S. (2014) ‘A comparative study on menstrual hygiene among urban and rural adolescent girls of West Bengal’, Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 3(4): 413–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2249-4863.148131>.
Phillips-Howard, P.A., Caruso, B., Torondel, B., Zulaika, G., Sahin, M. and Sommer, M. (2016) ‘Menstrual hygiene management among adolescent schoolgirls in low and middle-income countries: research priorities’, Global Health Action 1: 1–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/gha.v9.33032>.
Rabiu, K.A., Adewunmi, A.A., Akinlusi, F.M. and Akinola, O.L. (2010) ‘Female reproductive tract infections: understandings and care seeking behaviour among women of reproductive age in Lagos, Nigeria’, BMC Women’s Health 10: 2–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472-6874-10-8>.
Salvatore, S., Cattoni, E., Siesto, G., Serati, M., Sorice, P. and Torella, M. (2011) ‘Urinary tract infections in women’, European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 156(2): 131–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2011.01.028>.
Sommer, M., Ackatia-Armah, N., Connolly, S. and Smiles, D. (2014) ‘A comparison of the menstruation and education experiences of girls in Tanzania, Ghana, Cambodia and Ethiopia’, Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 45(4): 589–609 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2013.871399>.
Sommer, M., Hirsch, J.S., Nathanson, C. and Praker, R.G. (2015) ‘Comfortably, safely, and without shame: defining menstrual hygiene management as a public health issue’, American Journal of Public Health 105(7): 1302–11 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302525>.
Sommer, M., Chandraratna, S., Cavill, S., Mahon, T. and Phillips-Howard, P. (2016) ‘Managing menstruation in the workplace: an overlooked issue in low- and middle-income countries’, International Journal for Equity in Health 15(1): 86 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12939-016-0379-8>.
Sumpter, C. and Torondel, B. (2013) ‘A systematic review of the health and social effects of menstrual hygiene management’, PLoS ONE 8(4): e62004 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062004>.
Thakre, S.B., Thakre, S.S., Ughade, S. and Thakre, A.D. (2012) ‘Urban-rural differences in menstrual problems and practices of girl students in Nagpur, India’, Indian Pediatrics 49(9): 733–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13312-012-0156-8>.
UNICEF (2015) ‘MHM in Ten’: Advancing the MHM Agenda in WASH in Schools [pdf] <https://www.unicef.org/wash/schools/files/MHM_in_Ten_2015.pdf> [accessed 20 February 2019].
World Bank (no date) ‘Data: India’ [online] <http://data.worldbank.org/country/india> [accessed 20 February 2019].
Anand, E., Singh, J. and Unisa, S. (2015) ‘Menstrual hygiene practices and its association with reproductive tract infections and abnormal vaginal discharge among women in India’, Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare 6(4): 249–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.srhc.2015.06.001>.
Aniebue, U.U., Aniebue, P.N. and Nwankwo, T.O. (2009) ‘The impact of pre-menarcheal training on menstrual practices and hygiene of Nigerian school girls’, The Pan African Medical Journal 2: 9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/pamj.v2i1.51708>.
Auemaneekul, N., Bhandari, S. and Kerdmongkol, P. (2013) ‘Menstrual hygiene practice among adolescent in a rural district of Nepal’, Asia Journal of Public Health 4: 8–15.
Baker, K.K., Padhi, B., Torondel, B., Das, P., Dutta, A., Sahoo, K.C., Das, B., Dreibelbis, R., Caruso, B., Freeman, M.C., Sager, L. and Panigrahi, P. (2017) ‘From menarche to menopause: a population-based assessment of water, sanitation, and hygiene risk factors for reproductive tract infection symptoms over life stages in rural girls and women in India’, PLoS ONE 12(12): 1–20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188234>.
Burra, S., Patel, S. and Kerr, T. (2003) ‘Community-designed, built and managed toilet blocks in Indian cities’, Environment and Urbanization 15(2): 11–32 <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/095624780301500202>.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (no date) ‘World Factbook: South Asia: India’ [online], <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html> [accessed 20 February 2019].
Das, P., Baker, K.K., Dutta, A., Swain, T., Sahoo, S., Das, B.S., Panda, B., Nayak, A., Bara, M., Bilung, B., Mishra, P.R., Panigrahi, P., Cairncross, S. and Torondel, B. (2015) ‘Menstrual hygiene practices, WASH access and the risk of urogenital infection in women from Odisha, India’, PLoS ONE 10(6): e0130777 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0130777>.
Das, P., Swain, T., Mohanty, J.R., Sinha, S., Padhi, B., Torondel, B., Cumming, O., Panda, B., Nayak, A. and Panigrahi, P. (2018) ‘Higher vaginal pH in Trichomonas vaginalis infection with intermediate Nugent score in reproductive-age women: a hospital-based cross-sectional study in Odisha, India’, Parasitology Research 117(9): 2735–42 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00436-018-5962-z>.
Deo, D. and Ghattargi, C. (2005) ‘Perceptions and practices regarding menstruation: a comparative study in urban and rural adolescent girls’, Indian Journal of Community Medicine 30(1): 33–4.
Dielubanza, E.J. and Schaeffer, A.J. (2011) ‘Urinary tract infections in women’, Medical Clinics of North America 95(1): 27–41 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mcna.2010.08.023>.
Dutta, D., Badloe, C., Lee, H. and House, S. (2016) Supporting the Rights of Girls and Women through Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM) in the East Asia and Pacific Region: Realities, Progress and Opportunities [pdf] <http://menstrualhygieneday.org/supporting-rights-girls-women-menstrual-hygiene-management-mhm-east-asia-pacific-region/> [accessed 20 February 2019].
van Eijk, A.M., Sivakami, M., Thakkar, M.B., Bauman, A., Laerson, K.F., Coates, S. and Phillips-Howard, P.A. (2016) ‘Menstrual hygiene management among adolescent girls in India: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, BMJ Open 6(3): e010290 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010290>.
Garg, R., Goyal, S. and Gupta, S. (2012) ‘India moves towards menstrual hygiene: subsidized sanitary napkins for rural adolescent girls – issues and challenges’, Maternal and Child Health Journal 16(4): 767–74 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10995-011-0798-5>.
Garg Suneela, A.T. (2015) ‘Menstruation related myths in India: strategies for combating it’, Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 4(2): 184–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2249-4863.154627>.
Guterman, M., Mehta, P. and Gibbs, M. (2007) ‘Menstrual taboos among major religions’, The Internet Journal of World Health and Societal Politics 5(2): 1–7.
Guyton, A.C. and Hall, J.E. (2006) ‘Female physiology before pregnancy and female hormones’, in R. Gruliow and L. Belfus (eds), Medical Physiology, 11th edn, pp. 1011–26, London: Elsevier.
Hennegan, J. and Montgomery, P. (2016) ‘Do menstrual hygiene management interventions improve education and psychosocial outcomes for women and girls in low and middle income countries?’ PLoS ONE 11(2): e0146985 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146985>.
House, S., Mahon, T. and Cavill, S. (2013) ‘Bookshelf: Menstrual Hygiene Matters: a resource for improving menstrual hygiene around the world, 2012 www.wateraid.org/mhm’, Reproductive Health Matters 21(41): 257–59 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0968-8080(13)41712-3>.
International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) (2010) District Level Household and Facility Survey (DLHS-3), 2007-08: India, Mumbai: IIPS.
Kaiser, S. (2015) Menstrual Hygiene Management: National Guidelines [online], Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of India <https://mdws.gov.in/menstrual-hygiene-management-national-guidelines-december-2015> [accessed 20 February 2019].
Khanna, A. and Bhawsar, R. (2005) ‘Menstrual practices and reproductive problems: a study of adolescent girls in Rajasthan’, Journal of Health Management 7(1): 91–107 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/097206340400700103>.
Long, J., Caruso, B.A., Diego, L., Vancraeynest, K., Sahin, M., Andes, K.L. and Freeman, M.C. (2013) WASH in Schools Empowers Girls’ Education in Rural Cochabamba, Bolivia: An assessment of menstrual hygiene management in schools, New York: United Nations Children’s Fund.
Mahon, T. and Fernandes, M. (2010) ‘Menstrual hygiene in South Asia: a neglected issue for WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) programmes’, Gender & Development 18(1): 99–113 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13552071003600083>.
McCathie, R. (2006) ‘Vaginal discharge: common causes and management’, Current Obstetrics and Gynaecology 16(4): 211–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.curobgyn.2006.05.004>.
McMahon, S., Winch, P.J., Caruso, B., Obure, A.F., Ogutu, E.A., Ochari, I.A. and Rheingans, R.D. (2011) ‘“The girl with her period is the one to hang her head” reflections on menstrual management among schoolgirls in rural Kenya’, BMC International Health and Human Rights 11(1): 7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472-698X-11-7>.
Muralidharan, A., Patil, H. and Patnaik, S. (2015) ‘Unpacking the policy landscape for menstrual hygiene management: Implications for school WASH programmes in India’, Waterlines 34(1): 79–91 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2015.008>.
Paria, B., Bhattacharyya, A. and Das, S. (2014) ‘A comparative study on menstrual hygiene among urban and rural adolescent girls of West Bengal’, Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 3(4): 413–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2249-4863.148131>.
Phillips-Howard, P.A., Caruso, B., Torondel, B., Zulaika, G., Sahin, M. and Sommer, M. (2016) ‘Menstrual hygiene management among adolescent schoolgirls in low and middle-income countries: research priorities’, Global Health Action 1: 1–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/gha.v9.33032>.
Rabiu, K.A., Adewunmi, A.A., Akinlusi, F.M. and Akinola, O.L. (2010) ‘Female reproductive tract infections: understandings and care seeking behaviour among women of reproductive age in Lagos, Nigeria’, BMC Women’s Health 10: 2–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472-6874-10-8>.
Salvatore, S., Cattoni, E., Siesto, G., Serati, M., Sorice, P. and Torella, M. (2011) ‘Urinary tract infections in women’, European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 156(2): 131–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2011.01.028>.
Sommer, M., Ackatia-Armah, N., Connolly, S. and Smiles, D. (2014) ‘A comparison of the menstruation and education experiences of girls in Tanzania, Ghana, Cambodia and Ethiopia’, Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 45(4): 589–609 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2013.871399>.
Sommer, M., Hirsch, J.S., Nathanson, C. and Praker, R.G. (2015) ‘Comfortably, safely, and without shame: defining menstrual hygiene management as a public health issue’, American Journal of Public Health 105(7): 1302–11 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302525>.
Sommer, M., Chandraratna, S., Cavill, S., Mahon, T. and Phillips-Howard, P. (2016) ‘Managing menstruation in the workplace: an overlooked issue in low- and middle-income countries’, International Journal for Equity in Health 15(1): 86 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12939-016-0379-8>.
Sumpter, C. and Torondel, B. (2013) ‘A systematic review of the health and social effects of menstrual hygiene management’, PLoS ONE 8(4): e62004 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062004>.
Thakre, S.B., Thakre, S.S., Ughade, S. and Thakre, A.D. (2012) ‘Urban-rural differences in menstrual problems and practices of girl students in Nagpur, India’, Indian Pediatrics 49(9): 733–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13312-012-0156-8>.
UNICEF (2015) ‘MHM in Ten’: Advancing the MHM Agenda in WASH in Schools [pdf] <https://www.unicef.org/wash/schools/files/MHM_in_Ten_2015.pdf> [accessed 20 February 2019].
World Bank (no date) ‘Data: India’ [online] <http://data.worldbank.org/country/india> [accessed 20 February 2019].
Anand, E., Singh, J. and Unisa, S. (2015) ‘Menstrual hygiene practices and its association with reproductive tract infections and abnormal vaginal discharge among women in India’, Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare 6(4): 249–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.srhc.2015.06.001>.
Aniebue, U.U., Aniebue, P.N. and Nwankwo, T.O. (2009) ‘The impact of pre-menarcheal training on menstrual practices and hygiene of Nigerian school girls’, The Pan African Medical Journal 2: 9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/pamj.v2i1.51708>.
Auemaneekul, N., Bhandari, S. and Kerdmongkol, P. (2013) ‘Menstrual hygiene practice among adolescent in a rural district of Nepal’, Asia Journal of Public Health 4: 8–15.
Baker, K.K., Padhi, B., Torondel, B., Das, P., Dutta, A., Sahoo, K.C., Das, B., Dreibelbis, R., Caruso, B., Freeman, M.C., Sager, L. and Panigrahi, P. (2017) ‘From menarche to menopause: a population-based assessment of water, sanitation, and hygiene risk factors for reproductive tract infection symptoms over life stages in rural girls and women in India’, PLoS ONE 12(12): 1–20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188234>.
Burra, S., Patel, S. and Kerr, T. (2003) ‘Community-designed, built and managed toilet blocks in Indian cities’, Environment and Urbanization 15(2): 11–32 <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/095624780301500202>.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) (no date) ‘World Factbook: South Asia: India’ [online], <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html> [accessed 20 February 2019].
Das, P., Baker, K.K., Dutta, A., Swain, T., Sahoo, S., Das, B.S., Panda, B., Nayak, A., Bara, M., Bilung, B., Mishra, P.R., Panigrahi, P., Cairncross, S. and Torondel, B. (2015) ‘Menstrual hygiene practices, WASH access and the risk of urogenital infection in women from Odisha, India’, PLoS ONE 10(6): e0130777 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0130777>.
Das, P., Swain, T., Mohanty, J.R., Sinha, S., Padhi, B., Torondel, B., Cumming, O., Panda, B., Nayak, A. and Panigrahi, P. (2018) ‘Higher vaginal pH in Trichomonas vaginalis infection with intermediate Nugent score in reproductive-age women: a hospital-based cross-sectional study in Odisha, India’, Parasitology Research 117(9): 2735–42 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00436-018-5962-z>.
Deo, D. and Ghattargi, C. (2005) ‘Perceptions and practices regarding menstruation: a comparative study in urban and rural adolescent girls’, Indian Journal of Community Medicine 30(1): 33–4.
Dielubanza, E.J. and Schaeffer, A.J. (2011) ‘Urinary tract infections in women’, Medical Clinics of North America 95(1): 27–41 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mcna.2010.08.023>.
Dutta, D., Badloe, C., Lee, H. and House, S. (2016) Supporting the Rights of Girls and Women through Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM) in the East Asia and Pacific Region: Realities, Progress and Opportunities [pdf] <http://menstrualhygieneday.org/supporting-rights-girls-women-menstrual-hygiene-management-mhm-east-asia-pacific-region/> [accessed 20 February 2019].
van Eijk, A.M., Sivakami, M., Thakkar, M.B., Bauman, A., Laerson, K.F., Coates, S. and Phillips-Howard, P.A. (2016) ‘Menstrual hygiene management among adolescent girls in India: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, BMJ Open 6(3): e010290 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010290>.
Garg, R., Goyal, S. and Gupta, S. (2012) ‘India moves towards menstrual hygiene: subsidized sanitary napkins for rural adolescent girls – issues and challenges’, Maternal and Child Health Journal 16(4): 767–74 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10995-011-0798-5>.
Garg Suneela, A.T. (2015) ‘Menstruation related myths in India: strategies for combating it’, Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 4(2): 184–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2249-4863.154627>.
Guterman, M., Mehta, P. and Gibbs, M. (2007) ‘Menstrual taboos among major religions’, The Internet Journal of World Health and Societal Politics 5(2): 1–7.
Guyton, A.C. and Hall, J.E. (2006) ‘Female physiology before pregnancy and female hormones’, in R. Gruliow and L. Belfus (eds), Medical Physiology, 11th edn, pp. 1011–26, London: Elsevier.
Hennegan, J. and Montgomery, P. (2016) ‘Do menstrual hygiene management interventions improve education and psychosocial outcomes for women and girls in low and middle income countries?’ PLoS ONE 11(2): e0146985 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146985>.
House, S., Mahon, T. and Cavill, S. (2013) ‘Bookshelf: Menstrual Hygiene Matters: a resource for improving menstrual hygiene around the world, 2012 www.wateraid.org/mhm’, Reproductive Health Matters 21(41): 257–59 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0968-8080(13)41712-3>.
International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) (2010) District Level Household and Facility Survey (DLHS-3), 2007-08: India, Mumbai: IIPS.
Kaiser, S. (2015) Menstrual Hygiene Management: National Guidelines [online], Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of India <https://mdws.gov.in/menstrual-hygiene-management-national-guidelines-december-2015> [accessed 20 February 2019].
Khanna, A. and Bhawsar, R. (2005) ‘Menstrual practices and reproductive problems: a study of adolescent girls in Rajasthan’, Journal of Health Management 7(1): 91–107 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/097206340400700103>.
Long, J., Caruso, B.A., Diego, L., Vancraeynest, K., Sahin, M., Andes, K.L. and Freeman, M.C. (2013) WASH in Schools Empowers Girls’ Education in Rural Cochabamba, Bolivia: An assessment of menstrual hygiene management in schools, New York: United Nations Children’s Fund.
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Long, J., Caruso, B.A., Diego, L., Vancraeynest, K., Sahin, M., Andes, K.L. and Freeman, M.C. (2013) WASH in Schools Empowers Girls’ Education in Rural Cochabamba, Bolivia: An assessment of menstrual hygiene management in schools, New York: United Nations Children’s Fund.
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Sommer, M., Chandraratna, S., Cavill, S., Mahon, T. and Phillips-Howard, P. (2016) ‘Managing menstruation in the workplace: an overlooked issue in low- and middle-income countries’, International Journal for Equity in Health 15(1): 86 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12939-016-0379-8>.
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