Container-based sanitation (CBS) services operate in a number of low-income urban settlements across the globe, providing sanitation services where other on-site and off-site sanitation systems face logistical and environmental restrictions. The viability of each CBS service is influenced by a number of location-specific factors. Drawing on an initial review of existing CBS services, this paper identifies and evaluates these factors in relation to establishing CBS in a new service location. By applying a weighted scoring matrix to these factors, the potential viability of CBS services has been assessed for urban informal settlements in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. The viability of CBS services in these settlements was found to be most influenced by the current availability of basic sanitation facilities, the unfamiliarity with paying for sanitation services, and the universally adopted practice of anal cleansing with water. The process and scoring matrix developed and subsequently applied in Nepal are recommended as part of the pre-feasibility stage assessment where a CBS service is being considered as a sanitation option in new locations.

Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) (2017) Home page [online] <http://www.aepc.gov.np/?option=renewable&page=subrenewable&mid=2&sub_id=16&id=3> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Container Based Sanitation Alliance (CBSA) (2018) Home page [online] <http://www.cbsa.global/#/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Dewhurst, R. (2017) The Required Conditions and Success Criteria for Container-based Sanitation Viability and the Potential for Implementation in Kathmandu, Nepal, MSc dissertation, Loughborough University, UK.

Gardiner, V., Costa, F., Andriamahavita, A. and Gardiner, P. (2017) ‘Serviced household toilets, FSM and ICT in Antananarivo: lessons learned’, in FSM4: 60–7 [online] <https://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2744-7-1489140211.%20et%20alpdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Greenland, K., de-Witt Huberts, J., Wright, R., Hawkes, L., Ekor, C. and Biran, A. (2016) ‘A cross-sectional survey to assess household sanitation practices associated with uptake of “Clean Team” serviced home toilets in Kumasi, Ghana’, Environment and Urbanization 28(2): 583–98 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247816647343>.

High Powered Committee for Integrated Development of the Bagmati Civilization (HPCIDBC) (2011) Status and Strategy for Faecal Sludge Management in the Kathmandu Valley [online], Kathmandu, Nepal: HPCIDBC <https://ocw.un-ihe.org/pluginfile.php/4124/mod_resource/content/1/Status%20and%20Strategy%20for%20FSM%20Kathmandu%20Valley%20%282011%29.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Integrated Sanitation Solutions for Urban Development (i-San) (2018) Home page [online] <http://www.i-san.co.uk/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Isunju, J.B., Schwartz, K., Schouten, M.A., Johnson, W.P. and van Dijk, M.P. (2011) ‘Socio-economic aspects of improved sanitation in slums: a review’, Public Health 125(6): 368–3 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2011.03.008>.

Kirby-Garton, L. (2017) ‘Inner City Sanitation: India’, in SanCoP19: Container-Based Sanitation [online], Sanitation First <http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2797-7-1496410249.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Lumanti (2008) Status of Squatter Communities along Bagmati River and its Tributaries in Kathmandu Valley, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Manandhar, S. (2014) ‘Evicted once, Nepali squatters living in the ruins of a razed river settlement fear a recurring nightmare’, Global Press Journal [online] <https://globalpressjournal.com/asia/nepal/evicted-once-nepali-squatters-living-in-the-ruins-of-a-razed-river-settlement-fear-a-recurring-nightmare/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

McSorley, B. (2017) ‘Oxfam’s experience in Container based sanitation – Nairobi, Kenya (2010–2017)’ [online], London, UK: Oxfam <http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2797-7-1496410214.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Mekonnen, M.M. and Hoekstra, A.Y. (2016) ‘Four billion people facing severe water scarcity’, Science Advances 2(2): e1500323 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500323>.

Mikhael, G., Shepard, J. and Stevens, C. (2017) The World Can’t Wait for Sewers: Advancing Container-based Sanitation Businesses as a Viable Answer to the Global Sanitation Crisis [online], London: WSUP <https://www.wsup.com/content/uploads/2017/08/Clean-Team-whitepaper.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Moe, C.L. and Rheingans, R.D. (2006) ‘Global challenges in water, sanitation and health’, Journal of Water and Health 4(S1): 41–57 <https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2006.0043>.

O’Keefe, M., Lüthi, C., Tumwebaze, I.K. and Tobias, R. (2015) ‘Opportunities and limits to market-driven sanitation services: evidence from urban informal settlements in East Africa’, Environment and Urbanization 27(2): 421–40 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247815581758>.

Peal, A., Evans, B., Blackett, I., Hawkins, P. and Heymans, C. (2014) ‘Fecal sludge management (FSM): analytical tools for assessing FSM in cities’, Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 4(3): 371–83 <https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2014.139>.

Reade, A. (2016) What Potential is there for Container Based Sanitation and the Social Enterprise in Urban Emergencies? [online], ELRHA <https://www.elrha.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Container-Based-Sanitation-document.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Ross, I., Scott, R.E., Mujica, A. and Smith, M.D. (2016) Fecal Sludge Management Tools: Data Collection Instruments [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/23699> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Scott, P., Cotton, A. and Sohail, M. (2015) ‘Using tenure to build a “sanitation cityscape”: narrowing decisions for targeted sanitation interventions’, Environment and Urbanization 27(2): 389–406 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247815569415> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Thye, Y.P., Templeton, M.R. and Ali, M. (2011) ‘A critical review of technologies for pit latrine emptying in developing countries’, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 41(20): 1793–819 <https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2010.481593>.

Tilmans, S., Russel, K., Sklar, R., Page, L., Kramer, S. and Davis, J. (2015) ‘Container-based sanitation: assessing costs and effectiveness of excreta management in Cap Haitien, Haiti’, Environment and Urbanization 27(5): 89–104 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247815572746>.

UN (2017) ‘Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all’ [online] <http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2014) World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, Highlights [online] <https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/publications/files/wup2014-highlights.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

UN-Habitat (2016) Slums Almanac 2015–16: Tracking Improvement in the Lives of Slum Dwellers [online] <https://unhabitat.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02-old/Slum Almanac 2015-2016_EN.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

UN-Habitat (2018) ‘Bagmati Action Plan prepared with support of UN HABITAT’, 25 August 2018 [online], Nepal <http://unhabitat.org.np/media-center/news/bagmati-action-plan-prepared-with-support-of-un-habitat/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

WaterAid Nepal (2008) Assessment of Urine-Diverting Ecosan Toilets in Nepal [online], Kathmandu: WaterAid Nepal <https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/1600> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) (2017) Home page [online] <http://www.aepc.gov.np/?option=renewable&page=subrenewable&mid=2&sub_id=16&id=3> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Container Based Sanitation Alliance (CBSA) (2018) Home page [online] <http://www.cbsa.global/#/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Dewhurst, R. (2017) The Required Conditions and Success Criteria for Container-based Sanitation Viability and the Potential for Implementation in Kathmandu, Nepal, MSc dissertation, Loughborough University, UK.

Gardiner, V., Costa, F., Andriamahavita, A. and Gardiner, P. (2017) ‘Serviced household toilets, FSM and ICT in Antananarivo: lessons learned’, in FSM4: 60–7 [online] <https://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2744-7-1489140211.%20et%20alpdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Greenland, K., de-Witt Huberts, J., Wright, R., Hawkes, L., Ekor, C. and Biran, A. (2016) ‘A cross-sectional survey to assess household sanitation practices associated with uptake of “Clean Team” serviced home toilets in Kumasi, Ghana’, Environment and Urbanization 28(2): 583–98 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247816647343>.

High Powered Committee for Integrated Development of the Bagmati Civilization (HPCIDBC) (2011) Status and Strategy for Faecal Sludge Management in the Kathmandu Valley [online], Kathmandu, Nepal: HPCIDBC <https://ocw.un-ihe.org/pluginfile.php/4124/mod_resource/content/1/Status%20and%20Strategy%20for%20FSM%20Kathmandu%20Valley%20%282011%29.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Integrated Sanitation Solutions for Urban Development (i-San) (2018) Home page [online] <http://www.i-san.co.uk/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Isunju, J.B., Schwartz, K., Schouten, M.A., Johnson, W.P. and van Dijk, M.P. (2011) ‘Socio-economic aspects of improved sanitation in slums: a review’, Public Health 125(6): 368–3 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2011.03.008>.

Kirby-Garton, L. (2017) ‘Inner City Sanitation: India’, in SanCoP19: Container-Based Sanitation [online], Sanitation First <http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2797-7-1496410249.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Lumanti (2008) Status of Squatter Communities along Bagmati River and its Tributaries in Kathmandu Valley, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Manandhar, S. (2014) ‘Evicted once, Nepali squatters living in the ruins of a razed river settlement fear a recurring nightmare’, Global Press Journal [online] <https://globalpressjournal.com/asia/nepal/evicted-once-nepali-squatters-living-in-the-ruins-of-a-razed-river-settlement-fear-a-recurring-nightmare/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

McSorley, B. (2017) ‘Oxfam’s experience in Container based sanitation – Nairobi, Kenya (2010–2017)’ [online], London, UK: Oxfam <http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2797-7-1496410214.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Mekonnen, M.M. and Hoekstra, A.Y. (2016) ‘Four billion people facing severe water scarcity’, Science Advances 2(2): e1500323 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500323>.

Mikhael, G., Shepard, J. and Stevens, C. (2017) The World Can’t Wait for Sewers: Advancing Container-based Sanitation Businesses as a Viable Answer to the Global Sanitation Crisis [online], London: WSUP <https://www.wsup.com/content/uploads/2017/08/Clean-Team-whitepaper.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Moe, C.L. and Rheingans, R.D. (2006) ‘Global challenges in water, sanitation and health’, Journal of Water and Health 4(S1): 41–57 <https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2006.0043>.

O’Keefe, M., Lüthi, C., Tumwebaze, I.K. and Tobias, R. (2015) ‘Opportunities and limits to market-driven sanitation services: evidence from urban informal settlements in East Africa’, Environment and Urbanization 27(2): 421–40 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247815581758>.

Peal, A., Evans, B., Blackett, I., Hawkins, P. and Heymans, C. (2014) ‘Fecal sludge management (FSM): analytical tools for assessing FSM in cities’, Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 4(3): 371–83 <https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2014.139>.

Reade, A. (2016) What Potential is there for Container Based Sanitation and the Social Enterprise in Urban Emergencies? [online], ELRHA <https://www.elrha.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Container-Based-Sanitation-document.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Ross, I., Scott, R.E., Mujica, A. and Smith, M.D. (2016) Fecal Sludge Management Tools: Data Collection Instruments [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/23699> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Scott, P., Cotton, A. and Sohail, M. (2015) ‘Using tenure to build a “sanitation cityscape”: narrowing decisions for targeted sanitation interventions’, Environment and Urbanization 27(2): 389–406 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247815569415> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Thye, Y.P., Templeton, M.R. and Ali, M. (2011) ‘A critical review of technologies for pit latrine emptying in developing countries’, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 41(20): 1793–819 <https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2010.481593>.

Tilmans, S., Russel, K., Sklar, R., Page, L., Kramer, S. and Davis, J. (2015) ‘Container-based sanitation: assessing costs and effectiveness of excreta management in Cap Haitien, Haiti’, Environment and Urbanization 27(5): 89–104 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247815572746>.

UN (2017) ‘Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all’ [online] <http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2014) World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, Highlights [online] <https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/publications/files/wup2014-highlights.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

UN-Habitat (2016) Slums Almanac 2015–16: Tracking Improvement in the Lives of Slum Dwellers [online] <https://unhabitat.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02-old/Slum Almanac 2015-2016_EN.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

UN-Habitat (2018) ‘Bagmati Action Plan prepared with support of UN HABITAT’, 25 August 2018 [online], Nepal <http://unhabitat.org.np/media-center/news/bagmati-action-plan-prepared-with-support-of-un-habitat/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

WaterAid Nepal (2008) Assessment of Urine-Diverting Ecosan Toilets in Nepal [online], Kathmandu: WaterAid Nepal <https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/1600> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) (2017) Home page [online] <http://www.aepc.gov.np/?option=renewable&page=subrenewable&mid=2&sub_id=16&id=3> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Container Based Sanitation Alliance (CBSA) (2018) Home page [online] <http://www.cbsa.global/#/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Dewhurst, R. (2017) The Required Conditions and Success Criteria for Container-based Sanitation Viability and the Potential for Implementation in Kathmandu, Nepal, MSc dissertation, Loughborough University, UK.

Gardiner, V., Costa, F., Andriamahavita, A. and Gardiner, P. (2017) ‘Serviced household toilets, FSM and ICT in Antananarivo: lessons learned’, in FSM4: 60–7 [online] <https://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2744-7-1489140211.%20et%20alpdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Greenland, K., de-Witt Huberts, J., Wright, R., Hawkes, L., Ekor, C. and Biran, A. (2016) ‘A cross-sectional survey to assess household sanitation practices associated with uptake of “Clean Team” serviced home toilets in Kumasi, Ghana’, Environment and Urbanization 28(2): 583–98 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247816647343>.

High Powered Committee for Integrated Development of the Bagmati Civilization (HPCIDBC) (2011) Status and Strategy for Faecal Sludge Management in the Kathmandu Valley [online], Kathmandu, Nepal: HPCIDBC <https://ocw.un-ihe.org/pluginfile.php/4124/mod_resource/content/1/Status%20and%20Strategy%20for%20FSM%20Kathmandu%20Valley%20%282011%29.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Integrated Sanitation Solutions for Urban Development (i-San) (2018) Home page [online] <http://www.i-san.co.uk/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Isunju, J.B., Schwartz, K., Schouten, M.A., Johnson, W.P. and van Dijk, M.P. (2011) ‘Socio-economic aspects of improved sanitation in slums: a review’, Public Health 125(6): 368–3 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2011.03.008>.

Kirby-Garton, L. (2017) ‘Inner City Sanitation: India’, in SanCoP19: Container-Based Sanitation [online], Sanitation First <http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2797-7-1496410249.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Lumanti (2008) Status of Squatter Communities along Bagmati River and its Tributaries in Kathmandu Valley, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Manandhar, S. (2014) ‘Evicted once, Nepali squatters living in the ruins of a razed river settlement fear a recurring nightmare’, Global Press Journal [online] <https://globalpressjournal.com/asia/nepal/evicted-once-nepali-squatters-living-in-the-ruins-of-a-razed-river-settlement-fear-a-recurring-nightmare/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

McSorley, B. (2017) ‘Oxfam’s experience in Container based sanitation – Nairobi, Kenya (2010–2017)’ [online], London, UK: Oxfam <http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2797-7-1496410214.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Mekonnen, M.M. and Hoekstra, A.Y. (2016) ‘Four billion people facing severe water scarcity’, Science Advances 2(2): e1500323 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500323>.

Mikhael, G., Shepard, J. and Stevens, C. (2017) The World Can’t Wait for Sewers: Advancing Container-based Sanitation Businesses as a Viable Answer to the Global Sanitation Crisis [online], London: WSUP <https://www.wsup.com/content/uploads/2017/08/Clean-Team-whitepaper.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Moe, C.L. and Rheingans, R.D. (2006) ‘Global challenges in water, sanitation and health’, Journal of Water and Health 4(S1): 41–57 <https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2006.0043>.

O’Keefe, M., Lüthi, C., Tumwebaze, I.K. and Tobias, R. (2015) ‘Opportunities and limits to market-driven sanitation services: evidence from urban informal settlements in East Africa’, Environment and Urbanization 27(2): 421–40 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247815581758>.

Peal, A., Evans, B., Blackett, I., Hawkins, P. and Heymans, C. (2014) ‘Fecal sludge management (FSM): analytical tools for assessing FSM in cities’, Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 4(3): 371–83 <https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2014.139>.

Reade, A. (2016) What Potential is there for Container Based Sanitation and the Social Enterprise in Urban Emergencies? [online], ELRHA <https://www.elrha.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Container-Based-Sanitation-document.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Ross, I., Scott, R.E., Mujica, A. and Smith, M.D. (2016) Fecal Sludge Management Tools: Data Collection Instruments [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/23699> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Scott, P., Cotton, A. and Sohail, M. (2015) ‘Using tenure to build a “sanitation cityscape”: narrowing decisions for targeted sanitation interventions’, Environment and Urbanization 27(2): 389–406 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247815569415> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Thye, Y.P., Templeton, M.R. and Ali, M. (2011) ‘A critical review of technologies for pit latrine emptying in developing countries’, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 41(20): 1793–819 <https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2010.481593>.

Tilmans, S., Russel, K., Sklar, R., Page, L., Kramer, S. and Davis, J. (2015) ‘Container-based sanitation: assessing costs and effectiveness of excreta management in Cap Haitien, Haiti’, Environment and Urbanization 27(5): 89–104 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247815572746>.

UN (2017) ‘Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all’ [online] <http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2014) World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, Highlights [online] <https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/publications/files/wup2014-highlights.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

UN-Habitat (2016) Slums Almanac 2015–16: Tracking Improvement in the Lives of Slum Dwellers [online] <https://unhabitat.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02-old/Slum Almanac 2015-2016_EN.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

UN-Habitat (2018) ‘Bagmati Action Plan prepared with support of UN HABITAT’, 25 August 2018 [online], Nepal <http://unhabitat.org.np/media-center/news/bagmati-action-plan-prepared-with-support-of-un-habitat/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

WaterAid Nepal (2008) Assessment of Urine-Diverting Ecosan Toilets in Nepal [online], Kathmandu: WaterAid Nepal <https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/1600> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) (2017) Home page [online] <http://www.aepc.gov.np/?option=renewable&page=subrenewable&mid=2&sub_id=16&id=3> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Container Based Sanitation Alliance (CBSA) (2018) Home page [online] <http://www.cbsa.global/#/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Dewhurst, R. (2017) The Required Conditions and Success Criteria for Container-based Sanitation Viability and the Potential for Implementation in Kathmandu, Nepal, MSc dissertation, Loughborough University, UK.

Gardiner, V., Costa, F., Andriamahavita, A. and Gardiner, P. (2017) ‘Serviced household toilets, FSM and ICT in Antananarivo: lessons learned’, in FSM4: 60–7 [online] <https://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2744-7-1489140211.%20et%20alpdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Greenland, K., de-Witt Huberts, J., Wright, R., Hawkes, L., Ekor, C. and Biran, A. (2016) ‘A cross-sectional survey to assess household sanitation practices associated with uptake of “Clean Team” serviced home toilets in Kumasi, Ghana’, Environment and Urbanization 28(2): 583–98 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247816647343>.

High Powered Committee for Integrated Development of the Bagmati Civilization (HPCIDBC) (2011) Status and Strategy for Faecal Sludge Management in the Kathmandu Valley [online], Kathmandu, Nepal: HPCIDBC <https://ocw.un-ihe.org/pluginfile.php/4124/mod_resource/content/1/Status%20and%20Strategy%20for%20FSM%20Kathmandu%20Valley%20%282011%29.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Integrated Sanitation Solutions for Urban Development (i-San) (2018) Home page [online] <http://www.i-san.co.uk/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Isunju, J.B., Schwartz, K., Schouten, M.A., Johnson, W.P. and van Dijk, M.P. (2011) ‘Socio-economic aspects of improved sanitation in slums: a review’, Public Health 125(6): 368–3 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2011.03.008>.

Kirby-Garton, L. (2017) ‘Inner City Sanitation: India’, in SanCoP19: Container-Based Sanitation [online], Sanitation First <http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2797-7-1496410249.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Lumanti (2008) Status of Squatter Communities along Bagmati River and its Tributaries in Kathmandu Valley, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Manandhar, S. (2014) ‘Evicted once, Nepali squatters living in the ruins of a razed river settlement fear a recurring nightmare’, Global Press Journal [online] <https://globalpressjournal.com/asia/nepal/evicted-once-nepali-squatters-living-in-the-ruins-of-a-razed-river-settlement-fear-a-recurring-nightmare/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

McSorley, B. (2017) ‘Oxfam’s experience in Container based sanitation – Nairobi, Kenya (2010–2017)’ [online], London, UK: Oxfam <http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2797-7-1496410214.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Mekonnen, M.M. and Hoekstra, A.Y. (2016) ‘Four billion people facing severe water scarcity’, Science Advances 2(2): e1500323 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500323>.

Mikhael, G., Shepard, J. and Stevens, C. (2017) The World Can’t Wait for Sewers: Advancing Container-based Sanitation Businesses as a Viable Answer to the Global Sanitation Crisis [online], London: WSUP <https://www.wsup.com/content/uploads/2017/08/Clean-Team-whitepaper.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Moe, C.L. and Rheingans, R.D. (2006) ‘Global challenges in water, sanitation and health’, Journal of Water and Health 4(S1): 41–57 <https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2006.0043>.

O’Keefe, M., Lüthi, C., Tumwebaze, I.K. and Tobias, R. (2015) ‘Opportunities and limits to market-driven sanitation services: evidence from urban informal settlements in East Africa’, Environment and Urbanization 27(2): 421–40 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247815581758>.

Peal, A., Evans, B., Blackett, I., Hawkins, P. and Heymans, C. (2014) ‘Fecal sludge management (FSM): analytical tools for assessing FSM in cities’, Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 4(3): 371–83 <https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2014.139>.

Reade, A. (2016) What Potential is there for Container Based Sanitation and the Social Enterprise in Urban Emergencies? [online], ELRHA <https://www.elrha.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Container-Based-Sanitation-document.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Ross, I., Scott, R.E., Mujica, A. and Smith, M.D. (2016) Fecal Sludge Management Tools: Data Collection Instruments [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/23699> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Scott, P., Cotton, A. and Sohail, M. (2015) ‘Using tenure to build a “sanitation cityscape”: narrowing decisions for targeted sanitation interventions’, Environment and Urbanization 27(2): 389–406 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247815569415> [accessed 19 February 2019].

Thye, Y.P., Templeton, M.R. and Ali, M. (2011) ‘A critical review of technologies for pit latrine emptying in developing countries’, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 41(20): 1793–819 <https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2010.481593>.

Tilmans, S., Russel, K., Sklar, R., Page, L., Kramer, S. and Davis, J. (2015) ‘Container-based sanitation: assessing costs and effectiveness of excreta management in Cap Haitien, Haiti’, Environment and Urbanization 27(5): 89–104 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247815572746>.

UN (2017) ‘Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all’ [online] <http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/> [accessed 19 February 2019].

UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2014) World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, Highlights [online] <https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/publications/files/wup2014-highlights.pdf> [accessed 19 February 2019].

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