This paper describes the adaptive responses of rural households and community-based drinking water organizations (CWOs) during seasonal droughts in Costa Rica. It empirically characterizes the adaptive measures used by 3,410 households and 81 CWOs in the driest area of the country. Volumetric pricing is a powerful adaptation option for managing water scarcity during these periods. However, these pricing schemes are not properly set to recover costs for adequate investment in water infrastructure. As a result, many CWOs rely on external financial support to cover these investments. The financial and governance restrictions characterizing most CWOs must be overcome in order to implement most of the adaptation measures identified for preparedness against seasonal drought. On the other hand, some rural households use water sources in addition to the tap water provided by CWOs (e.g. bottled water), as well as water-storing devices (e.g. buckets). The lack of effective adaptation of CWOs to water scarcity, expressed by unreliable piped-water systems, would probably lead to a higher use of these alternatives. This would entail higher costs to households, due to the time and resources invested in these activities. These costs and the potential additional costs on health represent the social costs of community failures to adapt to drier scenarios in existing piped-water systems.

Adger, W., Arnell, N. and Tompkins, E. (2005) ‘Successful adaptation to climate change across scales’, Global Environmental Change, 15(2): 77−86 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2004.12.005>.

Bisaro, A., Roggero, M. and Villamayor-Tomas, S. (2018) ‘Institutional analysis in climate change adaptation research: a systematic literature review’, Ecological Economics 151(April): 34−43 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018.04.016>.

Bonilla, A. (2014) Patrones de sequía en Centroamérica: Su impacto en la producción de maíz y frijol y uso del Índice Normalizado de Precipitación para los Sistemas de Alerta Temprana [pdf], Tegucigalpa, Honduras: GWP Central America and The Swiss Cooperation <https://www.gwp.org/globalassets/global/gwp-cam_files/patrones-de-sequia_fin.pdf> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Brüntrup, M. and Tsegai, D. (2017) Drought Adaptation and Resilience in Developing Countries, Bonn: German Development Institute.

Bryan, K., Ward, S., Barr, S. and Butler, D. (2019) ‘Coping with drought: perceptions, intentions and decision-stages of South West England households’, Water Resources Management 33(3): 1185−202 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-018-2175-2>.

Desbureaux, S. and Rodella, A.S. (2019) ‘Drought in the city: the economic impact of water scarcity in Latin American metropolitan areas’, World Development 114: 13−27 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.09.026>.

DIGECA (2016) Guía práctica para el uso eficiente del agua en el sector público costarricense [pdf], San José, Costa Rica: Paz con la Naturaleza, British Embassy and MINAET <http://www.digeca.go.cr/sites/default/files/documentos/guia_de_agua_0.pdf> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Dilling, L., Daly, M.E., Travis, W.R., Wilhelmi, O.V. and Klein, R.A. (2015) ‘The dynamics of vulnerability: why adapting to climate variability will not always prepare us for climate change’, Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change 6(4): 413−25 <https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.341>.

Eakin, H., Lerner, A.M., Manuel-Navarrete, D., Hernández Aguilar, B., Martínez-Canedo, A., Tellman, B., Charli-Joseph, L., Fernández Álvarez, R. and Bojórquez-Tapia, L. (2016) ‘Adapting to risk and perpetuating poverty: household’s strategies for managing flood risk and water scarcity in Mexico City’, Environmental Science and Policy 66: 324−33 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.06.006>.

Engle, N.L. (2011) ‘Adaptive capacity and its assessment’, Global Environmental Change 21(2): 647−56 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.01.019>.

Hutchings, P., Chan, M.Y., Cuadrado, L., Ezbakhe, F., Mesa, B., Tamekawa, C. and Franceys, R. (2015) ‘A systematic review of success factors in the community management of rural water supplies over the past 30 years’, Water Policy 17(5): 963−83 <https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2015.128>.

ICAA, PAHO, and WHO (2002) Análisis sectorial agua potable y saneamiento en Costa Rica [pdf], San José, Costa Rica: ICAA, PAHO and WHO <https://www.aya.go.cr/centroDocumetacion/catalogoGeneral/Análisis%20sectorial%20agua%20potable%20y%20saneamiento%20de%20Costa%20Rica%20Informe%20final%202002.pdf> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Imbach, P., Chou, S., Lyra, A., Rodrigues, D., Rodriguez, D., Latinovic, D., Siqueira, G., Silva, A., Garofolo, L. and Georgiou, S. (2018) ‘Future climate change scenarios in Central America at high spatial resolution’, PLoS ONE 13(4): 1−21 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193570>.

IMN (2009a) Clima en Costa Rica: Pacífico Norte [online], San José, Costa Rica: IMN <https://www.imn.ac.cr/documents/10179/31165/PacificoNorte.pdf/4a0e8960-8c51-4390-8a8d-73d9d825d59b> [accessed 19 September 2019].

IMN (2009b) ‘ENOS (El Niño-Oscilación del Sur)’ [online], San José, Costa Rica: IMN <https://www.imn.ac.cr/enos> [accessed 19 September 2019].

IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change, Working group III Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.

LATINOSAN (2019) Resumen ejecutivo informe regional V Conferencia Latinoamericana de Saneamiento LATINOSAN, in V Conferencia Latinoamericana de Saneamiento LATINOSAN, San José, Costa Rica: LATINOSAN.

Lockwood, H., Mansour, G., Smits, S. and Smets, S. (2017) ‘Global study on sustainable service delivery models for rural water: country brief Haiti’, in 40th WEDC International Conference, Loughborough, UK: Loughborough University’s Institutional Repository.

Machado, A., dos Santos, J., Alves, L. and Quindeler, N. (2019) ‘Contributions of organizational levels in community management models of water supply in rural communities: cases from Brazil and Ecuador’, Water 11(3): 537 <https://doi.org/10.3390/w11030537>.

Madrigal, R., Alpízar, F. and Schlüter, A. (2011) ‘Determinants of performance of community-based drinking water organizations’, World Development 39(9): 1663−75 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.02.011>.

Madrigal, R., Alpízar, F. and Schlüter, A. (2013) ‘Public perceptions of the performance of community-based drinking water organizations in Costa Rica’, Water Resources and Rural Development 1−2(December 2017): 43−56 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wrr.2013.10.001>.

Madrigal, R. and Naranjo, M. (2015) ‘Adaptive capacity, drought and the performance of community-based drinking water organizations in Costa Rica’, Journal of Water and Climate Change 6(4): 831−47 <https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2015.154>.

MIDEPLAN (2013) Índice de Desarrollo Social (IDS) 2013 [pdf], San José, Costa Rica: MIDEPLAN <https://documentos.mideplan.go.cr/share/s/kWlIVW0DQhS7IntD87ZLag> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Murtinho, F. (2014) ‘Conservación de ecosistemas y manejo de agua: experiencias comunitarias en los Andes de Colombia’, in F. Cuesta, J. Sevink, L. Llambi, B. De Bievre and J. Posner (eds.), Avances en la investigación para la conservación de los páramos andinos, Lima, Perú: CONDESAN.

Murtinho, F. and Hayes, T.M. (2011) ‘Adaptation in resource-dependent communities: a call for greater methodological clarity in adaptation field research’, Society & Natural Resources: An International Journal 25(5): 1−10 <https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2011.604068>.

Murtinho, F., Eakin, H., López-Carr, D. and Hayes, T. M. (2013) ‘Does external funding help adaptation? Evidence from community-based water management in the Colombian Andes’ Environmental Management, 52 (5): 1103−1114 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-013-0156-z>.

Pattanayak, S.K., Yang, J.C., Whittington, D. and Bal Kumar, K. (2005) ‘Coping with unreliable public water supplies: averting expenditures by households in Kathmandu, Nepal’, Water Resources Research 41(2): 1−11 <https://doi.org/10.1029/2003WR002443>.

Prokopy, L.S., Thorsten, R., Bakalian, A. and Wakeman, W. (2008) ‘Evaluating the role of postconstruction support in sustaining drinking water projects evidence from Peru’, Journal of Planning Education and Research 27(3): 294−305 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X07311072>.

Sadoff, C. and Muller, M. (2010) La gestión del agua, la seguridad hídrica y la adaptación al cambio climático: Efectos anticipados y respuestas esenciales [pdf], Stockholm, Sweden: Global Water Partnership <http://www.monroban.org/public/documents/outils/uploaded/pm1di40k.pdf> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Sagüí, N., Madrigal, R. and Estigarribia, S. (2017) ‘Coping with water supply scarcity in rural communities in the Dry Central American Corridor: cost-benefit analysis to improve the water supply in the Maraxco community, Chiquimula, Guatemala’, Aqua-LAC 9(2): 85−10.

Scheaffer, R.L., Mendenhall, W. and Ott, L. (1987) Elementary Survey Sampling, Belmont, CA: Duxbury Press.

Thorsten, R. (2007) Predicting Sustainable Performance and Household Satisfaction of Community-Oriented Rural Water Supply Projects: A Quantitative Evaluation of Evidence from Ghana and Peru, PhD thesis, Department of City and Regional Planning, University of North Carolina.

UN (2015) ‘The Millennium Development Goals: Report 2015’ [online], New York: United Nations <https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/mdg/the-millennium-development-goals-report-2015.html> [accessed 19 September 2019].

UN (2016) ‘Water and Sanitation Interlinkages across the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’ [online], Geneva, Switzerland: UN Water <https://www.unwater.org/publications/water-sanitation-interlinkages-across-2030-agenda-sustainable-development/> [accessed 19 September 2019].

UN (2017) The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2017 [pdf], New York: United Nations <https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/files/report/2017/thesustainabledevelopmentgoalsreport2017.pdf> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Whittington, D., Davis, J., Prokopy, L., Komives, K., Thorsten, R., Lukacs, H., Bakalian, A. and Wakeman, W. (2009) ‘How well is the demand-driven, community management model for rural water supply systems doing? Evidence from Bolivia, Peru and Ghana’, Water Policy 11(6): 696−718 <https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2009.310>.

WHO and UNICEF (2017) Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines [pdf], Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization and the United Nations Children’s Fund <https://www.unicef.org/publications/files/Progress_on_Drinking_Water_Sanitation_and_Hygiene_2017.pdf> [accessed 19 September 2019].

World Bank (2010) The Cost to Developing Countries of Adapting to Climate Change: New Methods and Estimates [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/667701468177537886/pdf/557260WP0EACC0Box0349464B01PUBLIC1.pdf> [accessed 19 September 2019].

WWAP (2019) The United Nations World Water Development Report 2019: Leaving No One Behind [online], Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization <https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000367306> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Zambrana, T. (2017) Confederación Latinoamericanas de Organizaciones Comunitarias de Servicios de Agua Potable y Saneamiento (CLOCSAS): Antecedentes, evolución y potencialidades [online], Panama City: Agencia Española de Cooperación (AECID) <https://drive.google.com/file/d/0BzH8cAXY8eWnRWNNa0JxS2loQWc/view> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Adger, W., Arnell, N. and Tompkins, E. (2005) ‘Successful adaptation to climate change across scales’, Global Environmental Change, 15(2): 77−86 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2004.12.005>.

Bisaro, A., Roggero, M. and Villamayor-Tomas, S. (2018) ‘Institutional analysis in climate change adaptation research: a systematic literature review’, Ecological Economics 151(April): 34−43 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018.04.016>.

Bonilla, A. (2014) Patrones de sequía en Centroamérica: Su impacto en la producción de maíz y frijol y uso del Índice Normalizado de Precipitación para los Sistemas de Alerta Temprana [pdf], Tegucigalpa, Honduras: GWP Central America and The Swiss Cooperation <https://www.gwp.org/globalassets/global/gwp-cam_files/patrones-de-sequia_fin.pdf> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Brüntrup, M. and Tsegai, D. (2017) Drought Adaptation and Resilience in Developing Countries, Bonn: German Development Institute.

Bryan, K., Ward, S., Barr, S. and Butler, D. (2019) ‘Coping with drought: perceptions, intentions and decision-stages of South West England households’, Water Resources Management 33(3): 1185−202 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-018-2175-2>.

Desbureaux, S. and Rodella, A.S. (2019) ‘Drought in the city: the economic impact of water scarcity in Latin American metropolitan areas’, World Development 114: 13−27 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.09.026>.

DIGECA (2016) Guía práctica para el uso eficiente del agua en el sector público costarricense [pdf], San José, Costa Rica: Paz con la Naturaleza, British Embassy and MINAET <http://www.digeca.go.cr/sites/default/files/documentos/guia_de_agua_0.pdf> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Dilling, L., Daly, M.E., Travis, W.R., Wilhelmi, O.V. and Klein, R.A. (2015) ‘The dynamics of vulnerability: why adapting to climate variability will not always prepare us for climate change’, Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change 6(4): 413−25 <https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.341>.

Eakin, H., Lerner, A.M., Manuel-Navarrete, D., Hernández Aguilar, B., Martínez-Canedo, A., Tellman, B., Charli-Joseph, L., Fernández Álvarez, R. and Bojórquez-Tapia, L. (2016) ‘Adapting to risk and perpetuating poverty: household’s strategies for managing flood risk and water scarcity in Mexico City’, Environmental Science and Policy 66: 324−33 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.06.006>.

Engle, N.L. (2011) ‘Adaptive capacity and its assessment’, Global Environmental Change 21(2): 647−56 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.01.019>.

Hutchings, P., Chan, M.Y., Cuadrado, L., Ezbakhe, F., Mesa, B., Tamekawa, C. and Franceys, R. (2015) ‘A systematic review of success factors in the community management of rural water supplies over the past 30 years’, Water Policy 17(5): 963−83 <https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2015.128>.

ICAA, PAHO, and WHO (2002) Análisis sectorial agua potable y saneamiento en Costa Rica [pdf], San José, Costa Rica: ICAA, PAHO and WHO <https://www.aya.go.cr/centroDocumetacion/catalogoGeneral/Análisis%20sectorial%20agua%20potable%20y%20saneamiento%20de%20Costa%20Rica%20Informe%20final%202002.pdf> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Imbach, P., Chou, S., Lyra, A., Rodrigues, D., Rodriguez, D., Latinovic, D., Siqueira, G., Silva, A., Garofolo, L. and Georgiou, S. (2018) ‘Future climate change scenarios in Central America at high spatial resolution’, PLoS ONE 13(4): 1−21 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193570>.

IMN (2009a) Clima en Costa Rica: Pacífico Norte [online], San José, Costa Rica: IMN <https://www.imn.ac.cr/documents/10179/31165/PacificoNorte.pdf/4a0e8960-8c51-4390-8a8d-73d9d825d59b> [accessed 19 September 2019].

IMN (2009b) ‘ENOS (El Niño-Oscilación del Sur)’ [online], San José, Costa Rica: IMN <https://www.imn.ac.cr/enos> [accessed 19 September 2019].

IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change, Working group III Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.

LATINOSAN (2019) Resumen ejecutivo informe regional V Conferencia Latinoamericana de Saneamiento LATINOSAN, in V Conferencia Latinoamericana de Saneamiento LATINOSAN, San José, Costa Rica: LATINOSAN.

Lockwood, H., Mansour, G., Smits, S. and Smets, S. (2017) ‘Global study on sustainable service delivery models for rural water: country brief Haiti’, in 40th WEDC International Conference, Loughborough, UK: Loughborough University’s Institutional Repository.

Machado, A., dos Santos, J., Alves, L. and Quindeler, N. (2019) ‘Contributions of organizational levels in community management models of water supply in rural communities: cases from Brazil and Ecuador’, Water 11(3): 537 <https://doi.org/10.3390/w11030537>.

Madrigal, R., Alpízar, F. and Schlüter, A. (2011) ‘Determinants of performance of community-based drinking water organizations’, World Development 39(9): 1663−75 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.02.011>.

Madrigal, R., Alpízar, F. and Schlüter, A. (2013) ‘Public perceptions of the performance of community-based drinking water organizations in Costa Rica’, Water Resources and Rural Development 1−2(December 2017): 43−56 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wrr.2013.10.001>.

Madrigal, R. and Naranjo, M. (2015) ‘Adaptive capacity, drought and the performance of community-based drinking water organizations in Costa Rica’, Journal of Water and Climate Change 6(4): 831−47 <https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2015.154>.

MIDEPLAN (2013) Índice de Desarrollo Social (IDS) 2013 [pdf], San José, Costa Rica: MIDEPLAN <https://documentos.mideplan.go.cr/share/s/kWlIVW0DQhS7IntD87ZLag> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Murtinho, F. (2014) ‘Conservación de ecosistemas y manejo de agua: experiencias comunitarias en los Andes de Colombia’, in F. Cuesta, J. Sevink, L. Llambi, B. De Bievre and J. Posner (eds.), Avances en la investigación para la conservación de los páramos andinos, Lima, Perú: CONDESAN.

Murtinho, F. and Hayes, T.M. (2011) ‘Adaptation in resource-dependent communities: a call for greater methodological clarity in adaptation field research’, Society & Natural Resources: An International Journal 25(5): 1−10 <https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2011.604068>.

Murtinho, F., Eakin, H., López-Carr, D. and Hayes, T. M. (2013) ‘Does external funding help adaptation? Evidence from community-based water management in the Colombian Andes’ Environmental Management, 52 (5): 1103−1114 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-013-0156-z>.

Pattanayak, S.K., Yang, J.C., Whittington, D. and Bal Kumar, K. (2005) ‘Coping with unreliable public water supplies: averting expenditures by households in Kathmandu, Nepal’, Water Resources Research 41(2): 1−11 <https://doi.org/10.1029/2003WR002443>.

Prokopy, L.S., Thorsten, R., Bakalian, A. and Wakeman, W. (2008) ‘Evaluating the role of postconstruction support in sustaining drinking water projects evidence from Peru’, Journal of Planning Education and Research 27(3): 294−305 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X07311072>.

Sadoff, C. and Muller, M. (2010) La gestión del agua, la seguridad hídrica y la adaptación al cambio climático: Efectos anticipados y respuestas esenciales [pdf], Stockholm, Sweden: Global Water Partnership <http://www.monroban.org/public/documents/outils/uploaded/pm1di40k.pdf> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Sagüí, N., Madrigal, R. and Estigarribia, S. (2017) ‘Coping with water supply scarcity in rural communities in the Dry Central American Corridor: cost-benefit analysis to improve the water supply in the Maraxco community, Chiquimula, Guatemala’, Aqua-LAC 9(2): 85−10.

Scheaffer, R.L., Mendenhall, W. and Ott, L. (1987) Elementary Survey Sampling, Belmont, CA: Duxbury Press.

Thorsten, R. (2007) Predicting Sustainable Performance and Household Satisfaction of Community-Oriented Rural Water Supply Projects: A Quantitative Evaluation of Evidence from Ghana and Peru, PhD thesis, Department of City and Regional Planning, University of North Carolina.

UN (2015) ‘The Millennium Development Goals: Report 2015’ [online], New York: United Nations <https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/mdg/the-millennium-development-goals-report-2015.html> [accessed 19 September 2019].

UN (2016) ‘Water and Sanitation Interlinkages across the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’ [online], Geneva, Switzerland: UN Water <https://www.unwater.org/publications/water-sanitation-interlinkages-across-2030-agenda-sustainable-development/> [accessed 19 September 2019].

UN (2017) The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2017 [pdf], New York: United Nations <https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/files/report/2017/thesustainabledevelopmentgoalsreport2017.pdf> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Whittington, D., Davis, J., Prokopy, L., Komives, K., Thorsten, R., Lukacs, H., Bakalian, A. and Wakeman, W. (2009) ‘How well is the demand-driven, community management model for rural water supply systems doing? Evidence from Bolivia, Peru and Ghana’, Water Policy 11(6): 696−718 <https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2009.310>.

WHO and UNICEF (2017) Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines [pdf], Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization and the United Nations Children’s Fund <https://www.unicef.org/publications/files/Progress_on_Drinking_Water_Sanitation_and_Hygiene_2017.pdf> [accessed 19 September 2019].

World Bank (2010) The Cost to Developing Countries of Adapting to Climate Change: New Methods and Estimates [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/667701468177537886/pdf/557260WP0EACC0Box0349464B01PUBLIC1.pdf> [accessed 19 September 2019].

WWAP (2019) The United Nations World Water Development Report 2019: Leaving No One Behind [online], Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization <https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000367306> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Zambrana, T. (2017) Confederación Latinoamericanas de Organizaciones Comunitarias de Servicios de Agua Potable y Saneamiento (CLOCSAS): Antecedentes, evolución y potencialidades [online], Panama City: Agencia Española de Cooperación (AECID) <https://drive.google.com/file/d/0BzH8cAXY8eWnRWNNa0JxS2loQWc/view> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Adger, W., Arnell, N. and Tompkins, E. (2005) ‘Successful adaptation to climate change across scales’, Global Environmental Change, 15(2): 77−86 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2004.12.005>.

Bisaro, A., Roggero, M. and Villamayor-Tomas, S. (2018) ‘Institutional analysis in climate change adaptation research: a systematic literature review’, Ecological Economics 151(April): 34−43 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018.04.016>.

Bonilla, A. (2014) Patrones de sequía en Centroamérica: Su impacto en la producción de maíz y frijol y uso del Índice Normalizado de Precipitación para los Sistemas de Alerta Temprana [pdf], Tegucigalpa, Honduras: GWP Central America and The Swiss Cooperation <https://www.gwp.org/globalassets/global/gwp-cam_files/patrones-de-sequia_fin.pdf> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Brüntrup, M. and Tsegai, D. (2017) Drought Adaptation and Resilience in Developing Countries, Bonn: German Development Institute.

Bryan, K., Ward, S., Barr, S. and Butler, D. (2019) ‘Coping with drought: perceptions, intentions and decision-stages of South West England households’, Water Resources Management 33(3): 1185−202 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-018-2175-2>.

Desbureaux, S. and Rodella, A.S. (2019) ‘Drought in the city: the economic impact of water scarcity in Latin American metropolitan areas’, World Development 114: 13−27 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.09.026>.

DIGECA (2016) Guía práctica para el uso eficiente del agua en el sector público costarricense [pdf], San José, Costa Rica: Paz con la Naturaleza, British Embassy and MINAET <http://www.digeca.go.cr/sites/default/files/documentos/guia_de_agua_0.pdf> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Dilling, L., Daly, M.E., Travis, W.R., Wilhelmi, O.V. and Klein, R.A. (2015) ‘The dynamics of vulnerability: why adapting to climate variability will not always prepare us for climate change’, Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change 6(4): 413−25 <https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.341>.

Eakin, H., Lerner, A.M., Manuel-Navarrete, D., Hernández Aguilar, B., Martínez-Canedo, A., Tellman, B., Charli-Joseph, L., Fernández Álvarez, R. and Bojórquez-Tapia, L. (2016) ‘Adapting to risk and perpetuating poverty: household’s strategies for managing flood risk and water scarcity in Mexico City’, Environmental Science and Policy 66: 324−33 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.06.006>.

Engle, N.L. (2011) ‘Adaptive capacity and its assessment’, Global Environmental Change 21(2): 647−56 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.01.019>.

Hutchings, P., Chan, M.Y., Cuadrado, L., Ezbakhe, F., Mesa, B., Tamekawa, C. and Franceys, R. (2015) ‘A systematic review of success factors in the community management of rural water supplies over the past 30 years’, Water Policy 17(5): 963−83 <https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2015.128>.

ICAA, PAHO, and WHO (2002) Análisis sectorial agua potable y saneamiento en Costa Rica [pdf], San José, Costa Rica: ICAA, PAHO and WHO <https://www.aya.go.cr/centroDocumetacion/catalogoGeneral/Análisis%20sectorial%20agua%20potable%20y%20saneamiento%20de%20Costa%20Rica%20Informe%20final%202002.pdf> [accessed 19 September 2019].

Imbach, P., Chou, S., Lyra, A., Rodrigues, D., Rodriguez, D., Latinovic, D., Siqueira, G., Silva, A., Garofolo, L. and Georgiou, S. (2018) ‘Future climate change scenarios in Central America at high spatial resolution’, PLoS ONE 13(4): 1−21 <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193570>.

IMN (2009a) Clima en Costa Rica: Pacífico Norte [online], San José, Costa Rica: IMN <https://www.imn.ac.cr/documents/10179/31165/PacificoNorte.pdf/4a0e8960-8c51-4390-8a8d-73d9d825d59b> [accessed 19 September 2019].

IMN (2009b) ‘ENOS (El Niño-Oscilación del Sur)’ [online], San José, Costa Rica: IMN <https://www.imn.ac.cr/enos> [accessed 19 September 2019].

IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change, Working group III Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.

LATINOSAN (2019) Resumen ejecutivo informe regional V Conferencia Latinoamericana de Saneamiento LATINOSAN, in V Conferencia Latinoamericana de Saneamiento LATINOSAN, San José, Costa Rica: LATINOSAN.

Lockwood, H., Mansour, G., Smits, S. and Smets, S. (2017) ‘Global study on sustainable service delivery models for rural water: country brief Haiti’, in 40th WEDC International Conference, Loughborough, UK: Loughborough University’s Institutional Repository.

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