The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) target for access to safe sanitation and hygiene represents a marked improvement over the target used during the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) period. The SDG target attempts to: explicitly address hygiene; eliminate inequalities within populations; evaluate sanitation services beyond the household; account for the accessibility, safety, acceptability, and affordability of service delivery; and improve the sustainability of services (WHO/UNICEF, 2015). However, the proposed indicators for monitoring progress in sanitation and hygiene still rely primarily on infrequent household surveys and census data. This paper provides a critical review of the sanitation and hygiene target and explores the potential gaps between the expanded understanding of access, the proposed monitoring strategies, and the desired impacts. A variety of innovative methodologies and technologies are reviewed, with specific attention given to their suitability for measuring and monitoring progress towards the sanitation and hygiene target.

Arnold, B.F., Khush, R.S., Ramaswamy, P., Rajkumar, P., Durairaj, N., Ramaprabha, P., Balakrishnan K. and Colford, J.M. (2015) ‘Short Report: Reactivity in rapidly collected hygiene and toilet spot check measurements: A cautionary note for longitudinal studies’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 92: 159–62.

Barreto, M.L., Genser, B., Strina, A., Teixeira, M.G., Assis, A.M., Rego, R.F., Teles, C.A., Prado, M.S., Matos, S.M., Santos, D.N., dos Santos, L.A. and Cairncross, S. (2007) ‘Effect of city-wide sanitation programme on reduction in rate of childhood diarrhoea in northeast Brazil: assessment by two cohort studies’, Lancet 370(9599): 1622–8.

Bangdiwala, S.I., Ramiro, L., Sadowski, L.S., Bordin, I.A., Hunter, W. and Shankar, V. (2004) ‘Intimate partner violence and the role of socioeconomic indicators in WorldSAFE communities in Chile, Egypt, India and the Philippines’, Injury Control and Safety Promotion 11(2): 101–9. doi: 10.1080/15660970412331292324 [last accessed 15 August 2018].

Barstow, C.K., Nagel, C.L., Clasen, T.F. and Thomas, E.A. (2016) ‘Process evaluation and assessment of use of a large scale water filter and cookstove program in Rwanda’, BMC Public Health 16: 584 <https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3237-0> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Biran, A., Rabie, T., Schmidt, W., Juvekar, S., Hirve, S. and Curtis V. (2008) ‘Comparing the performance of indicators of hand-washing practices in rural Indian households’, Tropical Medicine and International Health 13: 278–85.

Cairncross, S., Shordt, K., Zacharia, S. and Govindan, B.K. (2005) ‘What causes sustainable changes in hygiene behaviour? A cross-sectional study from Kerala, India’, Social Science and Medicine 61: 2212–20.

Cartwright, N. and Hardie, J. (2012) Evidenced-Based Policy: A Practical Guide to Doing It Better, New York Oxford University Press.

Clasen, T., Boisson, S., Routray, P., Torondel, B., Bell, M., Cumming, O., Ensink, J., Freeman, M., Jenkins, M., Odagiri, M., Ray, S., Sinha, A., Suar, M. and Schmidt, W.P. (2014) ‘Effectiveness of a rural sanitation programme on diarrhoea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomised trial’, The Lancet Global Health 2: e645–53.

Clasen, T., Fabini, D., Boisson, S., Taneja, J., Song, J., Aichinger, E., Bui, A., Dadashi, S., Schmidt, W.P., Burt, Z. and Nelson, K.L. (2012) ‘Making sanitation count: Developing and testing a device for assessing latrine use in low-income settings’, Environmental Science and Technology 46: 3295–303.

Clasen, T. (2018) ‘Improving safe water and sanitation monitoring for health gains’, in Innovations in WASH Impact Measures: Water and Sanitation Measurement Technologies and Practices to Inform the Sustainable Development Goals, E. Thomas, L.E. Andrés, C. Borja-Vega, and G. Sturzenegger (eds), Directions in Development. Washington, DC: World Bank. <https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1197-5> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Coffey, D., Gupta, A., Spears, D., Khurana, N., Srivastav, N., Hathi, P. and Vyas, S. (2014) ‘Revealed preference for open defecation’, Economic and Political Weekly 49: 43–55.

Curtis, V.A., Danquah, L.O. and Aunger, R.V. (2009) ‘Planned, motivated and habitual hygiene behaviour: An eleven country review’, Health Education Research 24: 655–73.

Delea, M.G., Nagel C.L., Thomas E.A., Halder A.K., Amin N., Shoab, A.K., Freeman. M.C., Unicomb, L. and Clasen, T.F. (2017) ‘Comparison of respondent-reported and sensor-recorded latrine utilization measures in rural Bangladesh: a cross-sectional study’, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 111(7): 308–315.

Escamilla, V., Knappett, P.S.K., Yunus, M., Streatfield, P.K. and Emch, M. (2013) ‘Influence of latrine proximity and type on Tubewell water quality and diarrheal disease in Bangladesh’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 103(2): 299–308.

Feachem, R.G., D.J. Bradley, H. Garelick, and D.D. Mara. 1983. Sanitation and Disease: Health Aspects of Wastewater and Excreta Management. World Bank Studies in Water Supply and Sanitation. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Gadgil, M.A., Unicomb, L., Luby, S.P. and Ram, P.K. (2011) ‘Consistent soap availability correlates with use of inexpensive soap products and improved handwashing in low-income households in Dhaka, Bangladesh’, American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Annual Meeting, Philadelphia, PA, USA.

Geruso, M. and Spears, D. (2015) ‘Neighborhood sanitation and infant mortality’ (No. w21184), Washington, DC: National Bureau of Economic Research.

icddr,b (2008) ‘Handwashing behavior in rural Bangladesh’, Health and Science Bulletin 6(3): 2–7.

Jenkins, M.W. and Curtis, V. (2005) ‘Achieving the “good life”: Why some people want latrines in rural Benin’, Social Science and Medicine 61: 2446–59.

Luby, S.P., Halder, A.K., Tronchet, C., Akhter, S., Bhuiya, A. and Johnston, R.B. (2009) ‘Household characteristics associated with handwashing with soap in rural Bangladesh’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 81(5): 882–7.

Moraes, L.R., Cancio, J.A. and Cairncross, S. (2004) ‘Impact of drainage and sewerage on intestinal nematode infections in poor urban areas in Salvador, Brazil’, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 98(4): 197–204.

Nagel, C.L., Kirby, M.A., Zambrano, L.D., Rosa, G., Barstow, C.K., Thomas, E.A. and Clasen, T.F. (2016) ‘Study design of a cluster-randomized controlled trial to evaluate a large-scale distribution of cook stoves and water filters in Western Province, Rwanda’, Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications 4: 124–35. <http://doi.org/10.1016/j.conctc.2016.07.003> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Nique, M. and Smertnik, H. (2015) Mobile for Development Utilities Programme, GSMA: London.

O’Reilly, K., Louis, E., Thomas, E. and Sinha, A. (2015) ‘Combining sensor monitoring and ethnography to evaluate household latrine usage in rural India’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 5: 426–38.

Pickering, A.J., Blum, A.G., Breiman, R.F., Ram, P.K. and Davis, J. (2014) ‘Video surveillance captures student hand hygiene behavior, reactivity to observation, and peer influence in Kenyan primary schools’, PLoS ONE 9: 1–7.

Pickering, A.J., Boehm, A.B., Mwanjali, M. and Davis, J. (2010) ‘Efficacy of waterless hand hygiene compared with handwashing with soap: a field study in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 82(2): 270–8.

Ram, P. (2013) ‘Practical guidance for measuring handwashing behavior: 2013 Update’, Global Scaling Up Hand-washing Project, Water and Sanitation Project, The World Bank <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/19005> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Ram, P.K., Halder, A.K., Granger, S.P., Jones, T., Hall, P., Hitchcock, D., Wright, R., Nygren, B., Islam, M.S., Molyneaux, J.W. and Luby, S.P. (2010) ‘Is structured observation a valid technique to measure handwashing behavior? Use of acceleration sensors embedded in soap to assess reactivity to structured observation’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 83: 1070–6.

Ram, P.K., Jahid, I., Halder, A.K., Nygren, B., Islam, M.S., Granger, S.P., Molyneaux, J.W. and Luby, S.P. (2011) ‘Variability in hand contamination based on serial measurements: implications for assessment of hand-cleansing behavior and disease risk’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 84(4): 510–6.

Rand, E.C., Loughnan, L.C., Maule, L. and Reese, H.E. (2015) ‘Management of child feces: current disposal practices’, Water and Sanitation Program: Research Brief (June), p. 8, available from: <https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-CFD-Summary-Brief.pdf> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Ribot, J.C. and Peluso, N.L. (2003) ‘A Theory of Access’, Rural Sociology 68: 153–81.

Robiarto, A., Sofyan, E., Setiawan, D., Malina, A. and Rand, E. (2014) ‘Scaling up Indonesia’s rural sanitation mobile monitoring system nationally’, Water and Sanitation Program learning note, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. <https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-Indonesia-Mobile-Monitoring.pdf> [last accessed Accessed 15 August 2018].

Rosa, G., Majorin, F., Boisson, S., Barstow, C., Johnson, M., Kirby, M., Ngabo, F., Thomas, E. and Clasen, T. (2014) ‘Assessing the impact of water filters and improved cook stoves on drinking water quality and household air pollution: a randomised controlled trial in Rwanda’, PLoS ONE 9(3): 1–9.

Sagerman, D., Nizame, F., Yu, J., Luby, S.P. and Ram, P. (2011) ‘Impact of complexity of instructions on handwashing adherence in a low income setting’, the American Society of Tropical Medical and Hygiene conference Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Sanipath (2014) Rapid Assessment Tool manual draft, 7 October sanipath.org [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Schwemlein, S., Cronk, R. and Bartram, J. (2016) ‘Indicators for monitoring water, sanitation, and hygiene: A systematic review of indicator selection methods’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 13(3).

Sclar G.D., Penakalapati, G., Caruso, B., Rehfuess, E., Garn, J., Alexander, K., Freeman, M., Boisson, S., Meddlicot, K. and Clasen, T. (2018) ‘Exploring the relationship beween sanitation and well-being: a systematic review and best-fit framework synthesis’, article forthcoming.

SHARE (2014) Sanitation Vulnerability: Women’s Stress and Struggles for Violence-free Sanitation, London, UK: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.

Shuval, H. (2003) ‘Estimating the global burden of thalassogenic diseases: human infectious diseases caused by wastewater pollution of the marine environment’, Journal of Water Health 1(2): 53–64.

Sinha, A., Nagel, C.L., Thomas, E., Schmidt, W.P., Torondel, B., Boisson, S. and Clasen, T.F. (2016) ‘Assessing latrine use in rural India: a cross-sectional study comparing reported use and passive latrine use monitors’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

Snoad, C., Nagel, C., Bhatacharya, A. and Thomas, E. (2017) ‘The effectiveness of sanitary inspections as a risk assessment tool for theromotolerant coliform bacteria contamination of rural drinking water: A review of data from West Bengal India,’ The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 96(4): 976–83.

Thomas, E.A. and Mattson, K. (2013) ‘Instrumented monitoring with traditional public health evaluation methods: An application to a water, sanitation and hygiene program in Jakarta’, Mercy Corps technical report <https://www.mercycorps.org/sites/default/files/Instrumented%20Monitoring%20Indonesia.pdf> [last accessed Accessed 15 August 2018].

Webb, A.L., Stein, A.D., Ramakrishnan, U., Hertzberg, V.S., Urizar, M. and Martorell, R. (2006) ‘A simple index to measure hygiene behaviours’, International Journal of Epidemiology 35: 1469–77.

WHO/UNICEF (2015) JMP Green Paper, ‘Global monitoring of water, sanitation and hygiene post-2015’, World Health Organization: Geneva.

WSP/UNICEF (2015) ‘Child Feces Disposal in India’, available from: <http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-India-CFD-Profile.pdf> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Arnold, B.F., Khush, R.S., Ramaswamy, P., Rajkumar, P., Durairaj, N., Ramaprabha, P., Balakrishnan K. and Colford, J.M. (2015) ‘Short Report: Reactivity in rapidly collected hygiene and toilet spot check measurements: A cautionary note for longitudinal studies’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 92: 159–62.

Barreto, M.L., Genser, B., Strina, A., Teixeira, M.G., Assis, A.M., Rego, R.F., Teles, C.A., Prado, M.S., Matos, S.M., Santos, D.N., dos Santos, L.A. and Cairncross, S. (2007) ‘Effect of city-wide sanitation programme on reduction in rate of childhood diarrhoea in northeast Brazil: assessment by two cohort studies’, Lancet 370(9599): 1622–8.

Bangdiwala, S.I., Ramiro, L., Sadowski, L.S., Bordin, I.A., Hunter, W. and Shankar, V. (2004) ‘Intimate partner violence and the role of socioeconomic indicators in WorldSAFE communities in Chile, Egypt, India and the Philippines’, Injury Control and Safety Promotion 11(2): 101–9. doi: 10.1080/15660970412331292324 [last accessed 15 August 2018].

Barstow, C.K., Nagel, C.L., Clasen, T.F. and Thomas, E.A. (2016) ‘Process evaluation and assessment of use of a large scale water filter and cookstove program in Rwanda’, BMC Public Health 16: 584 <https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3237-0> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Biran, A., Rabie, T., Schmidt, W., Juvekar, S., Hirve, S. and Curtis V. (2008) ‘Comparing the performance of indicators of hand-washing practices in rural Indian households’, Tropical Medicine and International Health 13: 278–85.

Cairncross, S., Shordt, K., Zacharia, S. and Govindan, B.K. (2005) ‘What causes sustainable changes in hygiene behaviour? A cross-sectional study from Kerala, India’, Social Science and Medicine 61: 2212–20.

Cartwright, N. and Hardie, J. (2012) Evidenced-Based Policy: A Practical Guide to Doing It Better, New York Oxford University Press.

Clasen, T., Boisson, S., Routray, P., Torondel, B., Bell, M., Cumming, O., Ensink, J., Freeman, M., Jenkins, M., Odagiri, M., Ray, S., Sinha, A., Suar, M. and Schmidt, W.P. (2014) ‘Effectiveness of a rural sanitation programme on diarrhoea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomised trial’, The Lancet Global Health 2: e645–53.

Clasen, T., Fabini, D., Boisson, S., Taneja, J., Song, J., Aichinger, E., Bui, A., Dadashi, S., Schmidt, W.P., Burt, Z. and Nelson, K.L. (2012) ‘Making sanitation count: Developing and testing a device for assessing latrine use in low-income settings’, Environmental Science and Technology 46: 3295–303.

Clasen, T. (2018) ‘Improving safe water and sanitation monitoring for health gains’, in Innovations in WASH Impact Measures: Water and Sanitation Measurement Technologies and Practices to Inform the Sustainable Development Goals, E. Thomas, L.E. Andrés, C. Borja-Vega, and G. Sturzenegger (eds), Directions in Development. Washington, DC: World Bank. <https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1197-5> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Coffey, D., Gupta, A., Spears, D., Khurana, N., Srivastav, N., Hathi, P. and Vyas, S. (2014) ‘Revealed preference for open defecation’, Economic and Political Weekly 49: 43–55.

Curtis, V.A., Danquah, L.O. and Aunger, R.V. (2009) ‘Planned, motivated and habitual hygiene behaviour: An eleven country review’, Health Education Research 24: 655–73.

Delea, M.G., Nagel C.L., Thomas E.A., Halder A.K., Amin N., Shoab, A.K., Freeman. M.C., Unicomb, L. and Clasen, T.F. (2017) ‘Comparison of respondent-reported and sensor-recorded latrine utilization measures in rural Bangladesh: a cross-sectional study’, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 111(7): 308–315.

Escamilla, V., Knappett, P.S.K., Yunus, M., Streatfield, P.K. and Emch, M. (2013) ‘Influence of latrine proximity and type on Tubewell water quality and diarrheal disease in Bangladesh’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 103(2): 299–308.

Feachem, R.G., D.J. Bradley, H. Garelick, and D.D. Mara. 1983. Sanitation and Disease: Health Aspects of Wastewater and Excreta Management. World Bank Studies in Water Supply and Sanitation. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Gadgil, M.A., Unicomb, L., Luby, S.P. and Ram, P.K. (2011) ‘Consistent soap availability correlates with use of inexpensive soap products and improved handwashing in low-income households in Dhaka, Bangladesh’, American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Annual Meeting, Philadelphia, PA, USA.

Geruso, M. and Spears, D. (2015) ‘Neighborhood sanitation and infant mortality’ (No. w21184), Washington, DC: National Bureau of Economic Research.

icddr,b (2008) ‘Handwashing behavior in rural Bangladesh’, Health and Science Bulletin 6(3): 2–7.

Jenkins, M.W. and Curtis, V. (2005) ‘Achieving the “good life”: Why some people want latrines in rural Benin’, Social Science and Medicine 61: 2446–59.

Luby, S.P., Halder, A.K., Tronchet, C., Akhter, S., Bhuiya, A. and Johnston, R.B. (2009) ‘Household characteristics associated with handwashing with soap in rural Bangladesh’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 81(5): 882–7.

Moraes, L.R., Cancio, J.A. and Cairncross, S. (2004) ‘Impact of drainage and sewerage on intestinal nematode infections in poor urban areas in Salvador, Brazil’, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 98(4): 197–204.

Nagel, C.L., Kirby, M.A., Zambrano, L.D., Rosa, G., Barstow, C.K., Thomas, E.A. and Clasen, T.F. (2016) ‘Study design of a cluster-randomized controlled trial to evaluate a large-scale distribution of cook stoves and water filters in Western Province, Rwanda’, Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications 4: 124–35. <http://doi.org/10.1016/j.conctc.2016.07.003> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Nique, M. and Smertnik, H. (2015) Mobile for Development Utilities Programme, GSMA: London.

O’Reilly, K., Louis, E., Thomas, E. and Sinha, A. (2015) ‘Combining sensor monitoring and ethnography to evaluate household latrine usage in rural India’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 5: 426–38.

Pickering, A.J., Blum, A.G., Breiman, R.F., Ram, P.K. and Davis, J. (2014) ‘Video surveillance captures student hand hygiene behavior, reactivity to observation, and peer influence in Kenyan primary schools’, PLoS ONE 9: 1–7.

Pickering, A.J., Boehm, A.B., Mwanjali, M. and Davis, J. (2010) ‘Efficacy of waterless hand hygiene compared with handwashing with soap: a field study in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 82(2): 270–8.

Ram, P. (2013) ‘Practical guidance for measuring handwashing behavior: 2013 Update’, Global Scaling Up Hand-washing Project, Water and Sanitation Project, The World Bank <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/19005> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Ram, P.K., Halder, A.K., Granger, S.P., Jones, T., Hall, P., Hitchcock, D., Wright, R., Nygren, B., Islam, M.S., Molyneaux, J.W. and Luby, S.P. (2010) ‘Is structured observation a valid technique to measure handwashing behavior? Use of acceleration sensors embedded in soap to assess reactivity to structured observation’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 83: 1070–6.

Ram, P.K., Jahid, I., Halder, A.K., Nygren, B., Islam, M.S., Granger, S.P., Molyneaux, J.W. and Luby, S.P. (2011) ‘Variability in hand contamination based on serial measurements: implications for assessment of hand-cleansing behavior and disease risk’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 84(4): 510–6.

Rand, E.C., Loughnan, L.C., Maule, L. and Reese, H.E. (2015) ‘Management of child feces: current disposal practices’, Water and Sanitation Program: Research Brief (June), p. 8, available from: <https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-CFD-Summary-Brief.pdf> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Ribot, J.C. and Peluso, N.L. (2003) ‘A Theory of Access’, Rural Sociology 68: 153–81.

Robiarto, A., Sofyan, E., Setiawan, D., Malina, A. and Rand, E. (2014) ‘Scaling up Indonesia’s rural sanitation mobile monitoring system nationally’, Water and Sanitation Program learning note, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. <https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-Indonesia-Mobile-Monitoring.pdf> [last accessed Accessed 15 August 2018].

Rosa, G., Majorin, F., Boisson, S., Barstow, C., Johnson, M., Kirby, M., Ngabo, F., Thomas, E. and Clasen, T. (2014) ‘Assessing the impact of water filters and improved cook stoves on drinking water quality and household air pollution: a randomised controlled trial in Rwanda’, PLoS ONE 9(3): 1–9.

Sagerman, D., Nizame, F., Yu, J., Luby, S.P. and Ram, P. (2011) ‘Impact of complexity of instructions on handwashing adherence in a low income setting’, the American Society of Tropical Medical and Hygiene conference Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Sanipath (2014) Rapid Assessment Tool manual draft, 7 October sanipath.org [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Schwemlein, S., Cronk, R. and Bartram, J. (2016) ‘Indicators for monitoring water, sanitation, and hygiene: A systematic review of indicator selection methods’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 13(3).

Sclar G.D., Penakalapati, G., Caruso, B., Rehfuess, E., Garn, J., Alexander, K., Freeman, M., Boisson, S., Meddlicot, K. and Clasen, T. (2018) ‘Exploring the relationship beween sanitation and well-being: a systematic review and best-fit framework synthesis’, article forthcoming.

SHARE (2014) Sanitation Vulnerability: Women’s Stress and Struggles for Violence-free Sanitation, London, UK: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.

Shuval, H. (2003) ‘Estimating the global burden of thalassogenic diseases: human infectious diseases caused by wastewater pollution of the marine environment’, Journal of Water Health 1(2): 53–64.

Sinha, A., Nagel, C.L., Thomas, E., Schmidt, W.P., Torondel, B., Boisson, S. and Clasen, T.F. (2016) ‘Assessing latrine use in rural India: a cross-sectional study comparing reported use and passive latrine use monitors’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

Snoad, C., Nagel, C., Bhatacharya, A. and Thomas, E. (2017) ‘The effectiveness of sanitary inspections as a risk assessment tool for theromotolerant coliform bacteria contamination of rural drinking water: A review of data from West Bengal India,’ The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 96(4): 976–83.

Thomas, E.A. and Mattson, K. (2013) ‘Instrumented monitoring with traditional public health evaluation methods: An application to a water, sanitation and hygiene program in Jakarta’, Mercy Corps technical report <https://www.mercycorps.org/sites/default/files/Instrumented%20Monitoring%20Indonesia.pdf> [last accessed Accessed 15 August 2018].

Webb, A.L., Stein, A.D., Ramakrishnan, U., Hertzberg, V.S., Urizar, M. and Martorell, R. (2006) ‘A simple index to measure hygiene behaviours’, International Journal of Epidemiology 35: 1469–77.

WHO/UNICEF (2015) JMP Green Paper, ‘Global monitoring of water, sanitation and hygiene post-2015’, World Health Organization: Geneva.

WSP/UNICEF (2015) ‘Child Feces Disposal in India’, available from: <http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-India-CFD-Profile.pdf> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Arnold, B.F., Khush, R.S., Ramaswamy, P., Rajkumar, P., Durairaj, N., Ramaprabha, P., Balakrishnan K. and Colford, J.M. (2015) ‘Short Report: Reactivity in rapidly collected hygiene and toilet spot check measurements: A cautionary note for longitudinal studies’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 92: 159–62.

Barreto, M.L., Genser, B., Strina, A., Teixeira, M.G., Assis, A.M., Rego, R.F., Teles, C.A., Prado, M.S., Matos, S.M., Santos, D.N., dos Santos, L.A. and Cairncross, S. (2007) ‘Effect of city-wide sanitation programme on reduction in rate of childhood diarrhoea in northeast Brazil: assessment by two cohort studies’, Lancet 370(9599): 1622–8.

Bangdiwala, S.I., Ramiro, L., Sadowski, L.S., Bordin, I.A., Hunter, W. and Shankar, V. (2004) ‘Intimate partner violence and the role of socioeconomic indicators in WorldSAFE communities in Chile, Egypt, India and the Philippines’, Injury Control and Safety Promotion 11(2): 101–9. doi: 10.1080/15660970412331292324 [last accessed 15 August 2018].

Barstow, C.K., Nagel, C.L., Clasen, T.F. and Thomas, E.A. (2016) ‘Process evaluation and assessment of use of a large scale water filter and cookstove program in Rwanda’, BMC Public Health 16: 584 <https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3237-0> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Biran, A., Rabie, T., Schmidt, W., Juvekar, S., Hirve, S. and Curtis V. (2008) ‘Comparing the performance of indicators of hand-washing practices in rural Indian households’, Tropical Medicine and International Health 13: 278–85.

Cairncross, S., Shordt, K., Zacharia, S. and Govindan, B.K. (2005) ‘What causes sustainable changes in hygiene behaviour? A cross-sectional study from Kerala, India’, Social Science and Medicine 61: 2212–20.

Cartwright, N. and Hardie, J. (2012) Evidenced-Based Policy: A Practical Guide to Doing It Better, New York Oxford University Press.

Clasen, T., Boisson, S., Routray, P., Torondel, B., Bell, M., Cumming, O., Ensink, J., Freeman, M., Jenkins, M., Odagiri, M., Ray, S., Sinha, A., Suar, M. and Schmidt, W.P. (2014) ‘Effectiveness of a rural sanitation programme on diarrhoea, soil-transmitted helminth infection, and child malnutrition in Odisha, India: a cluster-randomised trial’, The Lancet Global Health 2: e645–53.

Clasen, T., Fabini, D., Boisson, S., Taneja, J., Song, J., Aichinger, E., Bui, A., Dadashi, S., Schmidt, W.P., Burt, Z. and Nelson, K.L. (2012) ‘Making sanitation count: Developing and testing a device for assessing latrine use in low-income settings’, Environmental Science and Technology 46: 3295–303.

Clasen, T. (2018) ‘Improving safe water and sanitation monitoring for health gains’, in Innovations in WASH Impact Measures: Water and Sanitation Measurement Technologies and Practices to Inform the Sustainable Development Goals, E. Thomas, L.E. Andrés, C. Borja-Vega, and G. Sturzenegger (eds), Directions in Development. Washington, DC: World Bank. <https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1197-5> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Coffey, D., Gupta, A., Spears, D., Khurana, N., Srivastav, N., Hathi, P. and Vyas, S. (2014) ‘Revealed preference for open defecation’, Economic and Political Weekly 49: 43–55.

Curtis, V.A., Danquah, L.O. and Aunger, R.V. (2009) ‘Planned, motivated and habitual hygiene behaviour: An eleven country review’, Health Education Research 24: 655–73.

Delea, M.G., Nagel C.L., Thomas E.A., Halder A.K., Amin N., Shoab, A.K., Freeman. M.C., Unicomb, L. and Clasen, T.F. (2017) ‘Comparison of respondent-reported and sensor-recorded latrine utilization measures in rural Bangladesh: a cross-sectional study’, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 111(7): 308–315.

Escamilla, V., Knappett, P.S.K., Yunus, M., Streatfield, P.K. and Emch, M. (2013) ‘Influence of latrine proximity and type on Tubewell water quality and diarrheal disease in Bangladesh’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 103(2): 299–308.

Feachem, R.G., D.J. Bradley, H. Garelick, and D.D. Mara. 1983. Sanitation and Disease: Health Aspects of Wastewater and Excreta Management. World Bank Studies in Water Supply and Sanitation. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Gadgil, M.A., Unicomb, L., Luby, S.P. and Ram, P.K. (2011) ‘Consistent soap availability correlates with use of inexpensive soap products and improved handwashing in low-income households in Dhaka, Bangladesh’, American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Annual Meeting, Philadelphia, PA, USA.

Geruso, M. and Spears, D. (2015) ‘Neighborhood sanitation and infant mortality’ (No. w21184), Washington, DC: National Bureau of Economic Research.

icddr,b (2008) ‘Handwashing behavior in rural Bangladesh’, Health and Science Bulletin 6(3): 2–7.

Jenkins, M.W. and Curtis, V. (2005) ‘Achieving the “good life”: Why some people want latrines in rural Benin’, Social Science and Medicine 61: 2446–59.

Luby, S.P., Halder, A.K., Tronchet, C., Akhter, S., Bhuiya, A. and Johnston, R.B. (2009) ‘Household characteristics associated with handwashing with soap in rural Bangladesh’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 81(5): 882–7.

Moraes, L.R., Cancio, J.A. and Cairncross, S. (2004) ‘Impact of drainage and sewerage on intestinal nematode infections in poor urban areas in Salvador, Brazil’, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 98(4): 197–204.

Nagel, C.L., Kirby, M.A., Zambrano, L.D., Rosa, G., Barstow, C.K., Thomas, E.A. and Clasen, T.F. (2016) ‘Study design of a cluster-randomized controlled trial to evaluate a large-scale distribution of cook stoves and water filters in Western Province, Rwanda’, Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications 4: 124–35. <http://doi.org/10.1016/j.conctc.2016.07.003> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Nique, M. and Smertnik, H. (2015) Mobile for Development Utilities Programme, GSMA: London.

O’Reilly, K., Louis, E., Thomas, E. and Sinha, A. (2015) ‘Combining sensor monitoring and ethnography to evaluate household latrine usage in rural India’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 5: 426–38.

Pickering, A.J., Blum, A.G., Breiman, R.F., Ram, P.K. and Davis, J. (2014) ‘Video surveillance captures student hand hygiene behavior, reactivity to observation, and peer influence in Kenyan primary schools’, PLoS ONE 9: 1–7.

Pickering, A.J., Boehm, A.B., Mwanjali, M. and Davis, J. (2010) ‘Efficacy of waterless hand hygiene compared with handwashing with soap: a field study in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 82(2): 270–8.

Ram, P. (2013) ‘Practical guidance for measuring handwashing behavior: 2013 Update’, Global Scaling Up Hand-washing Project, Water and Sanitation Project, The World Bank <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/19005> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Ram, P.K., Halder, A.K., Granger, S.P., Jones, T., Hall, P., Hitchcock, D., Wright, R., Nygren, B., Islam, M.S., Molyneaux, J.W. and Luby, S.P. (2010) ‘Is structured observation a valid technique to measure handwashing behavior? Use of acceleration sensors embedded in soap to assess reactivity to structured observation’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 83: 1070–6.

Ram, P.K., Jahid, I., Halder, A.K., Nygren, B., Islam, M.S., Granger, S.P., Molyneaux, J.W. and Luby, S.P. (2011) ‘Variability in hand contamination based on serial measurements: implications for assessment of hand-cleansing behavior and disease risk’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 84(4): 510–6.

Rand, E.C., Loughnan, L.C., Maule, L. and Reese, H.E. (2015) ‘Management of child feces: current disposal practices’, Water and Sanitation Program: Research Brief (June), p. 8, available from: <https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-CFD-Summary-Brief.pdf> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Ribot, J.C. and Peluso, N.L. (2003) ‘A Theory of Access’, Rural Sociology 68: 153–81.

Robiarto, A., Sofyan, E., Setiawan, D., Malina, A. and Rand, E. (2014) ‘Scaling up Indonesia’s rural sanitation mobile monitoring system nationally’, Water and Sanitation Program learning note, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. <https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-Indonesia-Mobile-Monitoring.pdf> [last accessed Accessed 15 August 2018].

Rosa, G., Majorin, F., Boisson, S., Barstow, C., Johnson, M., Kirby, M., Ngabo, F., Thomas, E. and Clasen, T. (2014) ‘Assessing the impact of water filters and improved cook stoves on drinking water quality and household air pollution: a randomised controlled trial in Rwanda’, PLoS ONE 9(3): 1–9.

Sagerman, D., Nizame, F., Yu, J., Luby, S.P. and Ram, P. (2011) ‘Impact of complexity of instructions on handwashing adherence in a low income setting’, the American Society of Tropical Medical and Hygiene conference Dhaka, Bangladesh.

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Sclar G.D., Penakalapati, G., Caruso, B., Rehfuess, E., Garn, J., Alexander, K., Freeman, M., Boisson, S., Meddlicot, K. and Clasen, T. (2018) ‘Exploring the relationship beween sanitation and well-being: a systematic review and best-fit framework synthesis’, article forthcoming.

SHARE (2014) Sanitation Vulnerability: Women’s Stress and Struggles for Violence-free Sanitation, London, UK: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.

Shuval, H. (2003) ‘Estimating the global burden of thalassogenic diseases: human infectious diseases caused by wastewater pollution of the marine environment’, Journal of Water Health 1(2): 53–64.

Sinha, A., Nagel, C.L., Thomas, E., Schmidt, W.P., Torondel, B., Boisson, S. and Clasen, T.F. (2016) ‘Assessing latrine use in rural India: a cross-sectional study comparing reported use and passive latrine use monitors’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

Snoad, C., Nagel, C., Bhatacharya, A. and Thomas, E. (2017) ‘The effectiveness of sanitary inspections as a risk assessment tool for theromotolerant coliform bacteria contamination of rural drinking water: A review of data from West Bengal India,’ The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 96(4): 976–83.

Thomas, E.A. and Mattson, K. (2013) ‘Instrumented monitoring with traditional public health evaluation methods: An application to a water, sanitation and hygiene program in Jakarta’, Mercy Corps technical report <https://www.mercycorps.org/sites/default/files/Instrumented%20Monitoring%20Indonesia.pdf> [last accessed Accessed 15 August 2018].

Webb, A.L., Stein, A.D., Ramakrishnan, U., Hertzberg, V.S., Urizar, M. and Martorell, R. (2006) ‘A simple index to measure hygiene behaviours’, International Journal of Epidemiology 35: 1469–77.

WHO/UNICEF (2015) JMP Green Paper, ‘Global monitoring of water, sanitation and hygiene post-2015’, World Health Organization: Geneva.

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Curtis, V.A., Danquah, L.O. and Aunger, R.V. (2009) ‘Planned, motivated and habitual hygiene behaviour: An eleven country review’, Health Education Research 24: 655–73.

Delea, M.G., Nagel C.L., Thomas E.A., Halder A.K., Amin N., Shoab, A.K., Freeman. M.C., Unicomb, L. and Clasen, T.F. (2017) ‘Comparison of respondent-reported and sensor-recorded latrine utilization measures in rural Bangladesh: a cross-sectional study’, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 111(7): 308–315.

Escamilla, V., Knappett, P.S.K., Yunus, M., Streatfield, P.K. and Emch, M. (2013) ‘Influence of latrine proximity and type on Tubewell water quality and diarrheal disease in Bangladesh’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 103(2): 299–308.

Feachem, R.G., D.J. Bradley, H. Garelick, and D.D. Mara. 1983. Sanitation and Disease: Health Aspects of Wastewater and Excreta Management. World Bank Studies in Water Supply and Sanitation. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Gadgil, M.A., Unicomb, L., Luby, S.P. and Ram, P.K. (2011) ‘Consistent soap availability correlates with use of inexpensive soap products and improved handwashing in low-income households in Dhaka, Bangladesh’, American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Annual Meeting, Philadelphia, PA, USA.

Geruso, M. and Spears, D. (2015) ‘Neighborhood sanitation and infant mortality’ (No. w21184), Washington, DC: National Bureau of Economic Research.

icddr,b (2008) ‘Handwashing behavior in rural Bangladesh’, Health and Science Bulletin 6(3): 2–7.

Jenkins, M.W. and Curtis, V. (2005) ‘Achieving the “good life”: Why some people want latrines in rural Benin’, Social Science and Medicine 61: 2446–59.

Luby, S.P., Halder, A.K., Tronchet, C., Akhter, S., Bhuiya, A. and Johnston, R.B. (2009) ‘Household characteristics associated with handwashing with soap in rural Bangladesh’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 81(5): 882–7.

Moraes, L.R., Cancio, J.A. and Cairncross, S. (2004) ‘Impact of drainage and sewerage on intestinal nematode infections in poor urban areas in Salvador, Brazil’, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 98(4): 197–204.

Nagel, C.L., Kirby, M.A., Zambrano, L.D., Rosa, G., Barstow, C.K., Thomas, E.A. and Clasen, T.F. (2016) ‘Study design of a cluster-randomized controlled trial to evaluate a large-scale distribution of cook stoves and water filters in Western Province, Rwanda’, Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications 4: 124–35. <http://doi.org/10.1016/j.conctc.2016.07.003> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Nique, M. and Smertnik, H. (2015) Mobile for Development Utilities Programme, GSMA: London.

O’Reilly, K., Louis, E., Thomas, E. and Sinha, A. (2015) ‘Combining sensor monitoring and ethnography to evaluate household latrine usage in rural India’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 5: 426–38.

Pickering, A.J., Blum, A.G., Breiman, R.F., Ram, P.K. and Davis, J. (2014) ‘Video surveillance captures student hand hygiene behavior, reactivity to observation, and peer influence in Kenyan primary schools’, PLoS ONE 9: 1–7.

Pickering, A.J., Boehm, A.B., Mwanjali, M. and Davis, J. (2010) ‘Efficacy of waterless hand hygiene compared with handwashing with soap: a field study in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 82(2): 270–8.

Ram, P. (2013) ‘Practical guidance for measuring handwashing behavior: 2013 Update’, Global Scaling Up Hand-washing Project, Water and Sanitation Project, The World Bank <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/19005> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Ram, P.K., Halder, A.K., Granger, S.P., Jones, T., Hall, P., Hitchcock, D., Wright, R., Nygren, B., Islam, M.S., Molyneaux, J.W. and Luby, S.P. (2010) ‘Is structured observation a valid technique to measure handwashing behavior? Use of acceleration sensors embedded in soap to assess reactivity to structured observation’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 83: 1070–6.

Ram, P.K., Jahid, I., Halder, A.K., Nygren, B., Islam, M.S., Granger, S.P., Molyneaux, J.W. and Luby, S.P. (2011) ‘Variability in hand contamination based on serial measurements: implications for assessment of hand-cleansing behavior and disease risk’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 84(4): 510–6.

Rand, E.C., Loughnan, L.C., Maule, L. and Reese, H.E. (2015) ‘Management of child feces: current disposal practices’, Water and Sanitation Program: Research Brief (June), p. 8, available from: <https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-CFD-Summary-Brief.pdf> [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Ribot, J.C. and Peluso, N.L. (2003) ‘A Theory of Access’, Rural Sociology 68: 153–81.

Robiarto, A., Sofyan, E., Setiawan, D., Malina, A. and Rand, E. (2014) ‘Scaling up Indonesia’s rural sanitation mobile monitoring system nationally’, Water and Sanitation Program learning note, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. <https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-Indonesia-Mobile-Monitoring.pdf> [last accessed Accessed 15 August 2018].

Rosa, G., Majorin, F., Boisson, S., Barstow, C., Johnson, M., Kirby, M., Ngabo, F., Thomas, E. and Clasen, T. (2014) ‘Assessing the impact of water filters and improved cook stoves on drinking water quality and household air pollution: a randomised controlled trial in Rwanda’, PLoS ONE 9(3): 1–9.

Sagerman, D., Nizame, F., Yu, J., Luby, S.P. and Ram, P. (2011) ‘Impact of complexity of instructions on handwashing adherence in a low income setting’, the American Society of Tropical Medical and Hygiene conference Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Sanipath (2014) Rapid Assessment Tool manual draft, 7 October sanipath.org [last accessed 15th August 2018].

Schwemlein, S., Cronk, R. and Bartram, J. (2016) ‘Indicators for monitoring water, sanitation, and hygiene: A systematic review of indicator selection methods’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 13(3).

Sclar G.D., Penakalapati, G., Caruso, B., Rehfuess, E., Garn, J., Alexander, K., Freeman, M., Boisson, S., Meddlicot, K. and Clasen, T. (2018) ‘Exploring the relationship beween sanitation and well-being: a systematic review and best-fit framework synthesis’, article forthcoming.

SHARE (2014) Sanitation Vulnerability: Women’s Stress and Struggles for Violence-free Sanitation, London, UK: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.

Shuval, H. (2003) ‘Estimating the global burden of thalassogenic diseases: human infectious diseases caused by wastewater pollution of the marine environment’, Journal of Water Health 1(2): 53–64.

Sinha, A., Nagel, C.L., Thomas, E., Schmidt, W.P., Torondel, B., Boisson, S. and Clasen, T.F. (2016) ‘Assessing latrine use in rural India: a cross-sectional study comparing reported use and passive latrine use monitors’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

Snoad, C., Nagel, C., Bhatacharya, A. and Thomas, E. (2017) ‘The effectiveness of sanitary inspections as a risk assessment tool for theromotolerant coliform bacteria contamination of rural drinking water: A review of data from West Bengal India,’ The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 96(4): 976–83.

Thomas, E.A. and Mattson, K. (2013) ‘Instrumented monitoring with traditional public health evaluation methods: An application to a water, sanitation and hygiene program in Jakarta’, Mercy Corps technical report <https://www.mercycorps.org/sites/default/files/Instrumented%20Monitoring%20Indonesia.pdf> [last accessed Accessed 15 August 2018].

Webb, A.L., Stein, A.D., Ramakrishnan, U., Hertzberg, V.S., Urizar, M. and Martorell, R. (2006) ‘A simple index to measure hygiene behaviours’, International Journal of Epidemiology 35: 1469–77.

WHO/UNICEF (2015) JMP Green Paper, ‘Global monitoring of water, sanitation and hygiene post-2015’, World Health Organization: Geneva.

WSP/UNICEF (2015) ‘Child Feces Disposal in India’, available from: <http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-India-CFD-Profile.pdf> [last accessed 15th August 2018].