In a quest to ensure sustainability of water services delivery, the provision and management of potable water in small towns has gone through reforms, resulting in the current practice of community-based water management. It is assumed that community level actors are closest to the water resources and are in a better position to devise strategies to manage them. This paper assesses the financial self-sufficiency of community-managed water systems in Ghana. The study was based on content analysis of the water systems finances and separate focus group discussions with water management bodies. The main source of revenue for operation and maintenance is through water user-charges. While the expenditure pattern remains relatively stable, there is a highly undulating revenue pattern. The presence of unregulated alternative sources of water, especially in the rainy season, and weak oversight responsibility on water management are detrimental to the financial self-sufficiency of the water systems.

Anthony, J. (2007) ‘Drinking water for the third world’, Journal of the American Planning Association 73: 223–37 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01944360708976155>.

Bakker, K. (2008) ‘The ambiguity of community: debating alternatives to private-sector provision of urban water supply’, Water Alternatives 1: 236–52.

Bakker, K. and Cook, C. (2011) ‘Water governance in Canada: innovation and fragmentation’, Water Resources Development 27: 275–89 <https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2011.564969>.

Bardhana, P. and Mookherjee, D. (2005) ‘Decentralizing antipoverty program delivery in developing countries’, Journal of Public Economics 89: 675–704.

Biswas, A.K. and Tortajada, C. (2010) ‘Water supply of Phnom Penh: an example of good governance’, Water Resources Development 26: 157–72 <https://doi.org/10.1080/07900621003768859>.

Blaikie, P. (2006) ‘Is small really beautiful? Community-based natural resource management in Malawi and Botswana’, World Development 34: 1942–57 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.11.023>.

Bos, A. (2006) Capacity Building in the Water and Sanitation Sector at times of the MDGs, Discussion paper prepared for the round table workshop organised by Waterlinks and PSO, UNESCO-IHE.

Carter, R.C., Tyrrel, S.F. and Howsam, P. (1999) ‘The impact and sustainability of community water supply and sanitation programmes in developing countries’, Journal, Chartered Institute of Water and Environmental Management 13: 292–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1999.tb01050.x>.

Christina, G.M., Carja, B. and Anke, N. (2013) ‘Community management and sustainability of rural water facilities in Tanzania’, Water Policy 15: 79–100 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2013.014>.

Cleaver, F. and Toner, A. (2006) ‘The evolution of community water governance in Uchira, Tanzania: The implications for equality of access, sustainability and effectiveness’, Natural Resources Forum 30: 207–18 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-8947.2006.00115.x>.

Conyers, D. (1981) ‘Decentralization for regional development: a comparative study of Tanzania, Zambia and Papua New Guinea’, Public Administration & Development 1: 107–20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pad.4230010203>.

Conyers, D. (1984) ‘Decentralization and development: a review of the literature’, Public Administration & Development 4: 187–97 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pad.4230040207>.

CWSA (2010) Sector Guidelines-General: Rural Communities and Small Towns, Accra: Community Water and Sanitation Agency.

CWSA (2014a) National Coverage Statistics, Potable Water (Community-based Water Systems) [pdf], <www.cwsa.gov.gh/downloads/2014%20Rural%20Coverage%20Statistics2.pdf> [accessed 8 February 2018].

CWSA (2014b) National Community Water and Sanitation Programme, Project Implementation Manual, Accra: Ministry of Water Resources, Work and Housing.

Davis, J., Brikké, F. and Boesveld, M. (1995) Making your Water Supply Work: Operation and Maintenance of Small Water Supply Systems, The Hague, Netherlands: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre.

Eguavoen, I. (2008) The Political Ecology of Household Water in Northern Ghana, Bonn, Germany: Centre for Development Research (ZEF).

Eguavoen, I. and Youkhana, E. (2008) Small Towns Face Big Challenge. The Management of Piped Systems after the Water Sector Reform in Ghana, ZEF Working Paper Series, Bonn, Germany: Centre for Development Research.

Ezeanyika, E.S., Anyanwu, O.H., Osita-Njoku, A., Pat-Mbano, E.C. and Okwu, O.I. (2010) ‘Re-examining current paradigms and concepts: rural development, environmental sustainability, and poverty alleviation in Africa’, The Journal of Pan African Studies 3: 43–59.

Fielmua, N. (2011) ‘The role of the community ownership and management strategy towards sustainable access to water in Ghana (a case of Nadowli District)’, Journal of Sustainable Development 4: 174–84 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v4n3p174>.

Gbedemah, F.S. (2010) Management, Uses and Values of Demand-oriented Domestic Water Facilities in the Akatsi District of Ghana, PhD thesis, University of Leicester.

Ghana Statistical Service (2013) 2010 Population and Housing Census: National Analytical Report, Accra, Ghana: Ghana Statistical Service.

Ghana Statistical Service (2014) Ghana Living Standard Survey Round 6 (GLSS 6). Poverty Profile in Ghana (2005–2013), Accra, Ghana: Ghana Statistical Service.

Gilbert, G., Hugounenq, R. and Vaillancourt, F. (2013) ‘Local public finances in Ghana’, in B. Dafflon and T. Madies (eds.), The Political Economy of Decentralisation in Sub-Saharan Africa: A New Implementation Model in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya and Senegal, Washington DC: The World Bank & Agence Française de Développement.

Giné, R. and Pérez-Foguet, A. (2008) ‘Sustainability assessment of national rural water supply program in Tanzania’, Natural Resources Forum 32: 327–42.

González-Gómez, F., García-Rubio, M.A. and Guardiola, J. (2011) ‘Why is non-revenue water so high in so many cities?’ Water Resources Development 27: 345–60 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2010.548317>.

Government of Ghana (2009) Water and Sanitation Sector Performance Report, Accra, Ghana: Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing.

Gray, D.E. (2014) Doing Research in the Real World, London: Sage.

Harvey, P. and Reed, B. (2004) Rural Water Supply in Africa Building Blocks for Handpump Sustainability, Loughborough, UK: Loughborough University, Water, Engineering and Development Centre.

Harvey, P.A. and Reed, R.A. (2006a) ‘Community-managed water supplies in Africa: sustainable or dispensable?’ Community Development Journal 42: 365–78 <https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/bsl001>.

Harvey, P.A. and Reed, R.A. (2006b) ‘Sustainable supply chain for rural water supplies in Africa’, Proceedings of the ICE - Engineering Sustainability, London, UK: Institute of Civil Engineers.

Kamete, A.Y. (1998) ‘Interlocking livelihoods: farm and small town in Zimbabwe’, Environment and Urbanization 10: 23–34.

Karikari, K. (1996) ‘Water supply and management in rural Ghana: overview and case studies’, in E. Rached, E. Rathgeber, and D.B. Brooks (eds.), Water Management in Africa and the Middle East: Challenges and Opportunities, Canada: International Development Research Centre.

Koç, C. (2007) ‘Assessing the financial performance of water user associations: a case study at Great Menderes basin, Turkey’, Irrigation and Drainage Systems 21: 61–77 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10795-006-9015-x>.

Kokor, J. Y. and Kroes, G. (2000) Central Grants for Local Development in a Decentralised Planning System, Ghana, Dortmund: SPRING Centre.

Kwangware, J., Mayo, A. and Hoko, Z. (2014) ‘Sustainability of donor-funded rural water supply and sanitation projects in Mbire district, Zimbabwe’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 76: 134–9 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2014.10.001>.

Lane, J. (2006) ‘Improving water and sanitation services in rural areas: lessons from Ghana, Lesotho, and South Africa’, in L. FOX and R. LIEBENTHAL (eds.), Attacking African’s Poverty: Experience from the Ground, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Laryea, O.N. (1994) Challenges and Prospects of Community Management in Ghana, UNPD/GWSC Rural Water and Sanitation Project.

Litvack, J. and Seddon, J. (eds.) (1999) Decentralization Briefing Notes, World Bank Institute Working Papers in collaboration with PREM network.

Madrigal, R., Alpízar, F. and Schlüter, A. (2011) ‘Determinants of performance of community-based drinking water organizations’, World Development 39: 1663–75 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.02.011>.

Madrigal, R., Alpízar, F. and Schlüter, A. (2013) ‘Public perceptions of the performance of community-based drinking water organizations in Costa Rica’, Water Resources and Rural Development 1: 43–56 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wrr.2013.10.001>.

Manyena, S.B., Mutale, S.B. and Collins, A. (2008) ‘Sustainability of rural water supply and disaster resilience in Zimbabwe’, Water Policy 10: 563–75 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2008.066>.

Maras, J. (2004) ‘Economic and financial management capacity of small water systems’, Journal of Contemporary Water Research and Education 128: 31–4.

McCommon, C., Warner, D. and Yohalem, D. (1990) Community Management of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Services, Washington, DC: UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program.

Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook, London: Sage Publications.

Moglia, M., Cook, S., Sharma, A.K. and Burn, S. (2011) ‘Assessing decentralised water solutions: towards a framework for adaptive learning’, Water Resources Management 25: 217–38 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-010-9696-7>.

Mohan, G. (2008) ‘Participatory development’, in V. Desai and R.B. Potter (eds.), The Companion to Development Studies, 2nd ed., London: Hodder Education.

Molden, D., Sakthivadivel, R., Perry, C.J., Fraiture, C.D. and Kloezen, W.H. (1998) Indicators for Comparing Performance of Irrigated Agricultural Systems, Research Report 20, Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute.

Moriarty, P.B., Patricot, G., Bastemeijer, T., Smet, J. and Voorden, C.V.D. (2002) Between Rural and Urban: Towards Sustainable Management of Water Supply Systems in Small Towns in Africa, The Netherlands: International Water and Sanitation Centre.

Nauges, C. and Whittington, D. (2010) ‘Estimation of water demand in developing countries: an overview’, The World Bank Research Observer 25: 263–94.

NDPC (2011) The Implementation of the Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda (GSGDA 2010–2013): 2010 Annual Progress Report, Accra: National Development Planning Commission.

Opare, S. (2011) ‘Sustaining water supply through a phased community management approach: lessons from Ghana’s “oats” water supply scheme’, Environment, Development and Sustainability 13: 1021–42 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-011-9303-y>.

Ostrom, E., Schroeder, L. and Wynne, S. (1993) Institutional Incentives and Sustainable Development: Infrastructure Policies in Perspective, Colorado: Westview Press.

Peter, G. and Nkambule, S.E. (2012) ‘Factors affecting sustainability of rural water schemes in Swaziland’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 50: 196–204 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2012.09.011>.

Rondinelli, D.A. (1991) ‘Decentralizing water supply services in developing countries: factors affecting the success of community management’, Public Administration & Development 11: 415–30.

Rondinelli, D.A., McCullough, J.S. and Johnson, R.W. (1989) ‘Analysing decentralization policies in developing countries: a political-economy framework’, Development and Change 20: 57–87.

Rouse, M. (2013) Institutional Governance and Regulation of Water Services: The Essential Elements, London: IWA Publishing.

Saleth, R.M. and Dinar, A. (2004) The Institutional Economics of Water: A Cross-Country Analysis of Institutions and Performance, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.

Schouten, T. and Moriarty, P. (2003) Community Water, Community Management: From System to Service in Rural Areas, London: Practical Action Publishing.

Tumusiime, C. and Njiru, C. (2004) ‘Performance of management contracts in small towns water services’, 30th WEDC International Conference, 2004 Vientiane, Lao, pp. 225–9.

Valfrey-Visser, B. (2008) ‘Promising management models of rural water supply services’, 24th Aguasan Workshop [online] Berne, Switzerland: SDC <http://skat.ch/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Promisingmanagementmodels.pdf> [accessed 8 February 2018].

Villamayor-Tomas, S., Grundmann, P., Epstein, G., Evans, T. and Kimmich, C. (2015) ‘The water-energy-food security nexus through the lenses of the value chain and the institutional analysis and development frameworks’, Water Alternatives 8: 735–55.

Wendy, W. and Bakalian, A. (2009) Post-construction Support and Sustainability in Community-managed Rural Water Supply: Case Studies in Peru, Bolivia, and Ghana, Netherlands: The World Bank Group–Netherlands Water Partnership.

WHO (1996) Community Management of Water and Sanitation Systems: Points for Practitioners, Brazzaville, Congo: Regional Office for Africa: World Health Organization.

Anthony, J. (2007) ‘Drinking water for the third world’, Journal of the American Planning Association 73: 223–37 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01944360708976155>.

Bakker, K. (2008) ‘The ambiguity of community: debating alternatives to private-sector provision of urban water supply’, Water Alternatives 1: 236–52.

Bakker, K. and Cook, C. (2011) ‘Water governance in Canada: innovation and fragmentation’, Water Resources Development 27: 275–89 <https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2011.564969>.

Bardhana, P. and Mookherjee, D. (2005) ‘Decentralizing antipoverty program delivery in developing countries’, Journal of Public Economics 89: 675–704.

Biswas, A.K. and Tortajada, C. (2010) ‘Water supply of Phnom Penh: an example of good governance’, Water Resources Development 26: 157–72 <https://doi.org/10.1080/07900621003768859>.

Blaikie, P. (2006) ‘Is small really beautiful? Community-based natural resource management in Malawi and Botswana’, World Development 34: 1942–57 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.11.023>.

Bos, A. (2006) Capacity Building in the Water and Sanitation Sector at times of the MDGs, Discussion paper prepared for the round table workshop organised by Waterlinks and PSO, UNESCO-IHE.

Carter, R.C., Tyrrel, S.F. and Howsam, P. (1999) ‘The impact and sustainability of community water supply and sanitation programmes in developing countries’, Journal, Chartered Institute of Water and Environmental Management 13: 292–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1999.tb01050.x>.

Christina, G.M., Carja, B. and Anke, N. (2013) ‘Community management and sustainability of rural water facilities in Tanzania’, Water Policy 15: 79–100 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2013.014>.

Cleaver, F. and Toner, A. (2006) ‘The evolution of community water governance in Uchira, Tanzania: The implications for equality of access, sustainability and effectiveness’, Natural Resources Forum 30: 207–18 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-8947.2006.00115.x>.

Conyers, D. (1981) ‘Decentralization for regional development: a comparative study of Tanzania, Zambia and Papua New Guinea’, Public Administration & Development 1: 107–20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pad.4230010203>.

Conyers, D. (1984) ‘Decentralization and development: a review of the literature’, Public Administration & Development 4: 187–97 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pad.4230040207>.

CWSA (2010) Sector Guidelines-General: Rural Communities and Small Towns, Accra: Community Water and Sanitation Agency.

CWSA (2014a) National Coverage Statistics, Potable Water (Community-based Water Systems) [pdf], <www.cwsa.gov.gh/downloads/2014%20Rural%20Coverage%20Statistics2.pdf> [accessed 8 February 2018].

CWSA (2014b) National Community Water and Sanitation Programme, Project Implementation Manual, Accra: Ministry of Water Resources, Work and Housing.

Davis, J., Brikké, F. and Boesveld, M. (1995) Making your Water Supply Work: Operation and Maintenance of Small Water Supply Systems, The Hague, Netherlands: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre.

Eguavoen, I. (2008) The Political Ecology of Household Water in Northern Ghana, Bonn, Germany: Centre for Development Research (ZEF).

Eguavoen, I. and Youkhana, E. (2008) Small Towns Face Big Challenge. The Management of Piped Systems after the Water Sector Reform in Ghana, ZEF Working Paper Series, Bonn, Germany: Centre for Development Research.

Ezeanyika, E.S., Anyanwu, O.H., Osita-Njoku, A., Pat-Mbano, E.C. and Okwu, O.I. (2010) ‘Re-examining current paradigms and concepts: rural development, environmental sustainability, and poverty alleviation in Africa’, The Journal of Pan African Studies 3: 43–59.

Fielmua, N. (2011) ‘The role of the community ownership and management strategy towards sustainable access to water in Ghana (a case of Nadowli District)’, Journal of Sustainable Development 4: 174–84 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v4n3p174>.

Gbedemah, F.S. (2010) Management, Uses and Values of Demand-oriented Domestic Water Facilities in the Akatsi District of Ghana, PhD thesis, University of Leicester.

Ghana Statistical Service (2013) 2010 Population and Housing Census: National Analytical Report, Accra, Ghana: Ghana Statistical Service.

Ghana Statistical Service (2014) Ghana Living Standard Survey Round 6 (GLSS 6). Poverty Profile in Ghana (2005–2013), Accra, Ghana: Ghana Statistical Service.

Gilbert, G., Hugounenq, R. and Vaillancourt, F. (2013) ‘Local public finances in Ghana’, in B. Dafflon and T. Madies (eds.), The Political Economy of Decentralisation in Sub-Saharan Africa: A New Implementation Model in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya and Senegal, Washington DC: The World Bank & Agence Française de Développement.

Giné, R. and Pérez-Foguet, A. (2008) ‘Sustainability assessment of national rural water supply program in Tanzania’, Natural Resources Forum 32: 327–42.

González-Gómez, F., García-Rubio, M.A. and Guardiola, J. (2011) ‘Why is non-revenue water so high in so many cities?’ Water Resources Development 27: 345–60 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2010.548317>.

Government of Ghana (2009) Water and Sanitation Sector Performance Report, Accra, Ghana: Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing.

Gray, D.E. (2014) Doing Research in the Real World, London: Sage.

Harvey, P. and Reed, B. (2004) Rural Water Supply in Africa Building Blocks for Handpump Sustainability, Loughborough, UK: Loughborough University, Water, Engineering and Development Centre.

Harvey, P.A. and Reed, R.A. (2006a) ‘Community-managed water supplies in Africa: sustainable or dispensable?’ Community Development Journal 42: 365–78 <https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/bsl001>.

Harvey, P.A. and Reed, R.A. (2006b) ‘Sustainable supply chain for rural water supplies in Africa’, Proceedings of the ICE - Engineering Sustainability, London, UK: Institute of Civil Engineers.

Kamete, A.Y. (1998) ‘Interlocking livelihoods: farm and small town in Zimbabwe’, Environment and Urbanization 10: 23–34.

Karikari, K. (1996) ‘Water supply and management in rural Ghana: overview and case studies’, in E. Rached, E. Rathgeber, and D.B. Brooks (eds.), Water Management in Africa and the Middle East: Challenges and Opportunities, Canada: International Development Research Centre.

Koç, C. (2007) ‘Assessing the financial performance of water user associations: a case study at Great Menderes basin, Turkey’, Irrigation and Drainage Systems 21: 61–77 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10795-006-9015-x>.

Kokor, J. Y. and Kroes, G. (2000) Central Grants for Local Development in a Decentralised Planning System, Ghana, Dortmund: SPRING Centre.

Kwangware, J., Mayo, A. and Hoko, Z. (2014) ‘Sustainability of donor-funded rural water supply and sanitation projects in Mbire district, Zimbabwe’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 76: 134–9 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2014.10.001>.

Lane, J. (2006) ‘Improving water and sanitation services in rural areas: lessons from Ghana, Lesotho, and South Africa’, in L. FOX and R. LIEBENTHAL (eds.), Attacking African’s Poverty: Experience from the Ground, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Laryea, O.N. (1994) Challenges and Prospects of Community Management in Ghana, UNPD/GWSC Rural Water and Sanitation Project.

Litvack, J. and Seddon, J. (eds.) (1999) Decentralization Briefing Notes, World Bank Institute Working Papers in collaboration with PREM network.

Madrigal, R., Alpízar, F. and Schlüter, A. (2011) ‘Determinants of performance of community-based drinking water organizations’, World Development 39: 1663–75 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.02.011>.

Madrigal, R., Alpízar, F. and Schlüter, A. (2013) ‘Public perceptions of the performance of community-based drinking water organizations in Costa Rica’, Water Resources and Rural Development 1: 43–56 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wrr.2013.10.001>.

Manyena, S.B., Mutale, S.B. and Collins, A. (2008) ‘Sustainability of rural water supply and disaster resilience in Zimbabwe’, Water Policy 10: 563–75 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2008.066>.

Maras, J. (2004) ‘Economic and financial management capacity of small water systems’, Journal of Contemporary Water Research and Education 128: 31–4.

McCommon, C., Warner, D. and Yohalem, D. (1990) Community Management of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Services, Washington, DC: UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program.

Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook, London: Sage Publications.

Moglia, M., Cook, S., Sharma, A.K. and Burn, S. (2011) ‘Assessing decentralised water solutions: towards a framework for adaptive learning’, Water Resources Management 25: 217–38 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-010-9696-7>.

Mohan, G. (2008) ‘Participatory development’, in V. Desai and R.B. Potter (eds.), The Companion to Development Studies, 2nd ed., London: Hodder Education.

Molden, D., Sakthivadivel, R., Perry, C.J., Fraiture, C.D. and Kloezen, W.H. (1998) Indicators for Comparing Performance of Irrigated Agricultural Systems, Research Report 20, Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute.

Moriarty, P.B., Patricot, G., Bastemeijer, T., Smet, J. and Voorden, C.V.D. (2002) Between Rural and Urban: Towards Sustainable Management of Water Supply Systems in Small Towns in Africa, The Netherlands: International Water and Sanitation Centre.

Nauges, C. and Whittington, D. (2010) ‘Estimation of water demand in developing countries: an overview’, The World Bank Research Observer 25: 263–94.

NDPC (2011) The Implementation of the Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda (GSGDA 2010–2013): 2010 Annual Progress Report, Accra: National Development Planning Commission.

Opare, S. (2011) ‘Sustaining water supply through a phased community management approach: lessons from Ghana’s “oats” water supply scheme’, Environment, Development and Sustainability 13: 1021–42 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-011-9303-y>.

Ostrom, E., Schroeder, L. and Wynne, S. (1993) Institutional Incentives and Sustainable Development: Infrastructure Policies in Perspective, Colorado: Westview Press.

Peter, G. and Nkambule, S.E. (2012) ‘Factors affecting sustainability of rural water schemes in Swaziland’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 50: 196–204 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2012.09.011>.

Rondinelli, D.A. (1991) ‘Decentralizing water supply services in developing countries: factors affecting the success of community management’, Public Administration & Development 11: 415–30.

Rondinelli, D.A., McCullough, J.S. and Johnson, R.W. (1989) ‘Analysing decentralization policies in developing countries: a political-economy framework’, Development and Change 20: 57–87.

Rouse, M. (2013) Institutional Governance and Regulation of Water Services: The Essential Elements, London: IWA Publishing.

Saleth, R.M. and Dinar, A. (2004) The Institutional Economics of Water: A Cross-Country Analysis of Institutions and Performance, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.

Schouten, T. and Moriarty, P. (2003) Community Water, Community Management: From System to Service in Rural Areas, London: Practical Action Publishing.

Tumusiime, C. and Njiru, C. (2004) ‘Performance of management contracts in small towns water services’, 30th WEDC International Conference, 2004 Vientiane, Lao, pp. 225–9.

Valfrey-Visser, B. (2008) ‘Promising management models of rural water supply services’, 24th Aguasan Workshop [online] Berne, Switzerland: SDC <http://skat.ch/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Promisingmanagementmodels.pdf> [accessed 8 February 2018].

Villamayor-Tomas, S., Grundmann, P., Epstein, G., Evans, T. and Kimmich, C. (2015) ‘The water-energy-food security nexus through the lenses of the value chain and the institutional analysis and development frameworks’, Water Alternatives 8: 735–55.

Wendy, W. and Bakalian, A. (2009) Post-construction Support and Sustainability in Community-managed Rural Water Supply: Case Studies in Peru, Bolivia, and Ghana, Netherlands: The World Bank Group–Netherlands Water Partnership.

WHO (1996) Community Management of Water and Sanitation Systems: Points for Practitioners, Brazzaville, Congo: Regional Office for Africa: World Health Organization.

Anthony, J. (2007) ‘Drinking water for the third world’, Journal of the American Planning Association 73: 223–37 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01944360708976155>.

Bakker, K. (2008) ‘The ambiguity of community: debating alternatives to private-sector provision of urban water supply’, Water Alternatives 1: 236–52.

Bakker, K. and Cook, C. (2011) ‘Water governance in Canada: innovation and fragmentation’, Water Resources Development 27: 275–89 <https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2011.564969>.

Bardhana, P. and Mookherjee, D. (2005) ‘Decentralizing antipoverty program delivery in developing countries’, Journal of Public Economics 89: 675–704.

Biswas, A.K. and Tortajada, C. (2010) ‘Water supply of Phnom Penh: an example of good governance’, Water Resources Development 26: 157–72 <https://doi.org/10.1080/07900621003768859>.

Blaikie, P. (2006) ‘Is small really beautiful? Community-based natural resource management in Malawi and Botswana’, World Development 34: 1942–57 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.11.023>.

Bos, A. (2006) Capacity Building in the Water and Sanitation Sector at times of the MDGs, Discussion paper prepared for the round table workshop organised by Waterlinks and PSO, UNESCO-IHE.

Carter, R.C., Tyrrel, S.F. and Howsam, P. (1999) ‘The impact and sustainability of community water supply and sanitation programmes in developing countries’, Journal, Chartered Institute of Water and Environmental Management 13: 292–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1999.tb01050.x>.

Christina, G.M., Carja, B. and Anke, N. (2013) ‘Community management and sustainability of rural water facilities in Tanzania’, Water Policy 15: 79–100 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2013.014>.

Cleaver, F. and Toner, A. (2006) ‘The evolution of community water governance in Uchira, Tanzania: The implications for equality of access, sustainability and effectiveness’, Natural Resources Forum 30: 207–18 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-8947.2006.00115.x>.

Conyers, D. (1981) ‘Decentralization for regional development: a comparative study of Tanzania, Zambia and Papua New Guinea’, Public Administration & Development 1: 107–20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pad.4230010203>.

Conyers, D. (1984) ‘Decentralization and development: a review of the literature’, Public Administration & Development 4: 187–97 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pad.4230040207>.

CWSA (2010) Sector Guidelines-General: Rural Communities and Small Towns, Accra: Community Water and Sanitation Agency.

CWSA (2014a) National Coverage Statistics, Potable Water (Community-based Water Systems) [pdf], <www.cwsa.gov.gh/downloads/2014%20Rural%20Coverage%20Statistics2.pdf> [accessed 8 February 2018].

CWSA (2014b) National Community Water and Sanitation Programme, Project Implementation Manual, Accra: Ministry of Water Resources, Work and Housing.

Davis, J., Brikké, F. and Boesveld, M. (1995) Making your Water Supply Work: Operation and Maintenance of Small Water Supply Systems, The Hague, Netherlands: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre.

Eguavoen, I. (2008) The Political Ecology of Household Water in Northern Ghana, Bonn, Germany: Centre for Development Research (ZEF).

Eguavoen, I. and Youkhana, E. (2008) Small Towns Face Big Challenge. The Management of Piped Systems after the Water Sector Reform in Ghana, ZEF Working Paper Series, Bonn, Germany: Centre for Development Research.

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Giné, R. and Pérez-Foguet, A. (2008) ‘Sustainability assessment of national rural water supply program in Tanzania’, Natural Resources Forum 32: 327–42.

González-Gómez, F., García-Rubio, M.A. and Guardiola, J. (2011) ‘Why is non-revenue water so high in so many cities?’ Water Resources Development 27: 345–60 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2010.548317>.

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Harvey, P. and Reed, B. (2004) Rural Water Supply in Africa Building Blocks for Handpump Sustainability, Loughborough, UK: Loughborough University, Water, Engineering and Development Centre.

Harvey, P.A. and Reed, R.A. (2006a) ‘Community-managed water supplies in Africa: sustainable or dispensable?’ Community Development Journal 42: 365–78 <https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/bsl001>.

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Karikari, K. (1996) ‘Water supply and management in rural Ghana: overview and case studies’, in E. Rached, E. Rathgeber, and D.B. Brooks (eds.), Water Management in Africa and the Middle East: Challenges and Opportunities, Canada: International Development Research Centre.

Koç, C. (2007) ‘Assessing the financial performance of water user associations: a case study at Great Menderes basin, Turkey’, Irrigation and Drainage Systems 21: 61–77 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10795-006-9015-x>.

Kokor, J. Y. and Kroes, G. (2000) Central Grants for Local Development in a Decentralised Planning System, Ghana, Dortmund: SPRING Centre.

Kwangware, J., Mayo, A. and Hoko, Z. (2014) ‘Sustainability of donor-funded rural water supply and sanitation projects in Mbire district, Zimbabwe’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 76: 134–9 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2014.10.001>.

Lane, J. (2006) ‘Improving water and sanitation services in rural areas: lessons from Ghana, Lesotho, and South Africa’, in L. FOX and R. LIEBENTHAL (eds.), Attacking African’s Poverty: Experience from the Ground, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Laryea, O.N. (1994) Challenges and Prospects of Community Management in Ghana, UNPD/GWSC Rural Water and Sanitation Project.

Litvack, J. and Seddon, J. (eds.) (1999) Decentralization Briefing Notes, World Bank Institute Working Papers in collaboration with PREM network.

Madrigal, R., Alpízar, F. and Schlüter, A. (2011) ‘Determinants of performance of community-based drinking water organizations’, World Development 39: 1663–75 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.02.011>.

Madrigal, R., Alpízar, F. and Schlüter, A. (2013) ‘Public perceptions of the performance of community-based drinking water organizations in Costa Rica’, Water Resources and Rural Development 1: 43–56 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wrr.2013.10.001>.

Manyena, S.B., Mutale, S.B. and Collins, A. (2008) ‘Sustainability of rural water supply and disaster resilience in Zimbabwe’, Water Policy 10: 563–75 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2008.066>.

Maras, J. (2004) ‘Economic and financial management capacity of small water systems’, Journal of Contemporary Water Research and Education 128: 31–4.

McCommon, C., Warner, D. and Yohalem, D. (1990) Community Management of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Services, Washington, DC: UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program.

Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook, London: Sage Publications.

Moglia, M., Cook, S., Sharma, A.K. and Burn, S. (2011) ‘Assessing decentralised water solutions: towards a framework for adaptive learning’, Water Resources Management 25: 217–38 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-010-9696-7>.

Mohan, G. (2008) ‘Participatory development’, in V. Desai and R.B. Potter (eds.), The Companion to Development Studies, 2nd ed., London: Hodder Education.

Molden, D., Sakthivadivel, R., Perry, C.J., Fraiture, C.D. and Kloezen, W.H. (1998) Indicators for Comparing Performance of Irrigated Agricultural Systems, Research Report 20, Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute.

Moriarty, P.B., Patricot, G., Bastemeijer, T., Smet, J. and Voorden, C.V.D. (2002) Between Rural and Urban: Towards Sustainable Management of Water Supply Systems in Small Towns in Africa, The Netherlands: International Water and Sanitation Centre.

Nauges, C. and Whittington, D. (2010) ‘Estimation of water demand in developing countries: an overview’, The World Bank Research Observer 25: 263–94.

NDPC (2011) The Implementation of the Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda (GSGDA 2010–2013): 2010 Annual Progress Report, Accra: National Development Planning Commission.

Opare, S. (2011) ‘Sustaining water supply through a phased community management approach: lessons from Ghana’s “oats” water supply scheme’, Environment, Development and Sustainability 13: 1021–42 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-011-9303-y>.

Ostrom, E., Schroeder, L. and Wynne, S. (1993) Institutional Incentives and Sustainable Development: Infrastructure Policies in Perspective, Colorado: Westview Press.

Peter, G. and Nkambule, S.E. (2012) ‘Factors affecting sustainability of rural water schemes in Swaziland’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 50: 196–204 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2012.09.011>.

Rondinelli, D.A. (1991) ‘Decentralizing water supply services in developing countries: factors affecting the success of community management’, Public Administration & Development 11: 415–30.

Rondinelli, D.A., McCullough, J.S. and Johnson, R.W. (1989) ‘Analysing decentralization policies in developing countries: a political-economy framework’, Development and Change 20: 57–87.

Rouse, M. (2013) Institutional Governance and Regulation of Water Services: The Essential Elements, London: IWA Publishing.

Saleth, R.M. and Dinar, A. (2004) The Institutional Economics of Water: A Cross-Country Analysis of Institutions and Performance, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.

Schouten, T. and Moriarty, P. (2003) Community Water, Community Management: From System to Service in Rural Areas, London: Practical Action Publishing.

Tumusiime, C. and Njiru, C. (2004) ‘Performance of management contracts in small towns water services’, 30th WEDC International Conference, 2004 Vientiane, Lao, pp. 225–9.

Valfrey-Visser, B. (2008) ‘Promising management models of rural water supply services’, 24th Aguasan Workshop [online] Berne, Switzerland: SDC <http://skat.ch/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Promisingmanagementmodels.pdf> [accessed 8 February 2018].

Villamayor-Tomas, S., Grundmann, P., Epstein, G., Evans, T. and Kimmich, C. (2015) ‘The water-energy-food security nexus through the lenses of the value chain and the institutional analysis and development frameworks’, Water Alternatives 8: 735–55.

Wendy, W. and Bakalian, A. (2009) Post-construction Support and Sustainability in Community-managed Rural Water Supply: Case Studies in Peru, Bolivia, and Ghana, Netherlands: The World Bank Group–Netherlands Water Partnership.

WHO (1996) Community Management of Water and Sanitation Systems: Points for Practitioners, Brazzaville, Congo: Regional Office for Africa: World Health Organization.